STRATIFICATION OF LANGUAGE - раздел Философия, Lectures in Theory of ENGLISH Grammar As We Already Know The Grammar Of Language Embraces All Its Levels And Units....
As we already know the Grammar of Language embraces all its levels and units. The problem here is: How many and what sorts of units must we recognise to be sure that our model of Language (=theory of Language) should be a correct representation of it?
Solution of the problem depends on how we answer another question: What is Language? We shall not now discuss it because this question was discussed at length in other courses. We shall simply use the results. And the result is that Language is a means of communication. If so, the structure of Language, the number and properties of its components, units are determined by its function. It means that they depend upon the aim the means is used for and the manner it can be used. The main aim of Language due to its definition is to create conditions for communication. So the biggest structure Language should provide us with is a dialogue. Then it must give us a possibility to show our position in the event we speak about. So the next structure is a communicative part. Then we have to inform each other about the matter we speak, about our aims and about what we want our partners to do. So the next structure is an UTTERANCE or in, other terms, text. Then we have to correlate our informative structures with "the actual life as we know it", producing sign models of necessary fragments if that life, and Language provides us with a sentence. Sentences being models of fragments of states of things must represent relations of things for which end Language provides us with members of sentence. Because relations can exist only if there are objects we need names of these objects and Language provides us with words. Then words to operate as names need elements which we know as morphemes. And finally we find phonemes.
The units and their functions which we have just listed constitute levels of Language. You know from the course of “Introduction into Linguistics” that such units as phoneme and morpheme exist only as variants. One cannot pronounce a phoneme or a morpheme. We pronounce (allo)phones or (allo)morphs. The same is true for other units mentioned in the paragraph above. We cannot pronounce a whole word. We pronounce a form of a word. The units we actually pronounce or hear or see or write are known as concrete or etic units. The units of the paragraph above< those which cannot pronounce or hear or see or write themselves but only by pronouncing or hearing or seeing or writing their etic representations are known as abstract or emic units.
Since Grammar presupposes unity of form and meaning it can start with morphs and morphemes and spread up to the dialogues if the other units listed above represent some of their meaning through opposites of their variant which in this case should be treated as grammatical forms.
Lectures in Theory of ENGLISH Grammar... PART Chapter General Notions of Grammar...
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STRATIFICATION OF LANGUAGE
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GRAMMAR IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR IN KNOWLEDGE
When asked what is Grammar, people usually say that it is a set of rules for correct use of words and making sentences. This definition may be accepted if we mean that Grammar is presentation of ou
GRAMMAR AS KNOWLEDGE OF LANGUAGE
In the previous section we found that Grammar as a part of Language is a system presenting meaning through oppositions of variant of units. In this section we shall try to define Grammar as a scien
VARIANTS OF GRAMMARS
Grammatical studies are usually done with a certain aim in mind, and grammatical descriptions vary with them.
There are two main purposes people describe the Grammar of a language. One typ
TYPES OF GRAMMATICAL ANALYSIS
As it was shown in §1, grammatical features are results of formal and meaningful oppositions of variants of units. But in actual speech we hear (or see) only one of the variants. It means that we h
DISTRIBUTIONAL GRAMMAR. SEGMENTATION PROCEDURES
In §4 we defined distributional Grammar as such description of a grammatical system which starts at the positional (syntagmatic) properties of units. In this section we shall discuss the procedures
DISTRIBUTIONAL GRAMMAR. BASIC NOTIONS.
What has been described is only prerequisite of the analysis. The analysis proper of three steps:
a) identifying environments;
b) arranging distribution;
c) comparing dis
DISTRIBUTIONAL GRAMMAR. IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENTS
Distributional analysis does not usually stop here, but endeavours to discover relations of units within the frame of the larger ones. The methods used at this step is known as IMMEDIATE
He sat looking at the silent telephone.
A)The splitting procedure
The first division should be placed after He. So we receive two constituents of the first level: He and
TRANSFORMATIONAL GRAMMAR. BASIC NOTIONS.
In §7 we found that analytical methods and procedures depend upon the idea of Language. One of the most popular images of Language is presenting it as a mechanism for creating, producing linguistic
TRANSFORMATIONAL GRAMMAR. ANALYTIC PROCEDURES
The aim of the transformational analysis is to discover how the sentence under analysis is generated. To achieve this objective we have to find the kernel structures which are the part of the deep
CATEGORIAL GRAMMAR. GRAMMATICAL MEANING
In §1 we found that that grammar is a system in language which presents meaning through opposition of variants of units. This idea is the basic statement which makes it possible to deduce a great n
CATEGORIAL GRAMMAR. CATEGORIES.
The notion of grammatical category has a great number of different definitions. And still in all of them the key words are general and obligatory. Keeping that in mind we should develop such defini
CATEGORIAL GRAMMAR. DIVISION OF GRAMMAR
As we saw in §14 Grammar may be spread to all types of units and units possess quite different functions and other features Grammar as a system of meaningful oppositions should also have properties
CATEGORIAL GRAMMAR. MORPHOLOGY
As it was shown in§15 Morphology is to be defined in two ways: according to the units described in it and according to properties of the units.
You know since your school years that morpho
CATEGORIAL GRAMMAR. SYNTAX
As it was shown in§15 Syntax is to be defined in two ways: according to the units described in it and according to properties of the units.
The units which are explored with the syntactica
MORPHOLOGICAL TYPOLOGY
As it was shown in § 16 Morphology includes several types of units and two types of grammatical meanings which employ the units as their forms. Besides connection with grammatical meanings the unit
SYNTACTICAL TYPOLOGY
Syntax as a part of grammatical description covers not only grammatical features of sentences, but also their referential meaning (semantic syntax). As a result variants of syntactic units which co
UNITS LARGER THAN A SENTENCE
As we saw in §14, grammatical features may be found in the units larger than a sentence, namely, in the utterances, communicative parts and dialogues. But as we have already mentioned above, these
General remarks.
Traditionally units larger than a sentence are considered to be properties of Speech but not Language. The reason is that a unit of language must be a recurrent, that is repeated element. In this r
Dialogues
If we take the dialogue of the previous section and change its social setting we would receive quite a different structure. Let us see how the dialogue about finding out time can be formed in case
Communicative part
Communicative parts are seldom recognised as linguistic units. The reason is that dialogues or events of communication are usually divided into steps of communication comprising normally two or mor
Illocution
Illocution is what the speaker wants of his or her partner. It can be shown by the verbs that are caller performative. A performative verb is a verb in the form of the first person Present I
Sentence. Definition.
Before we start discussing grammatical features of sentences we have to define their specific property which differentiates them from other units. In the linguistic theory we can find a great numbe
Structural Types of Sentences.
Structural types of sentences depend upon the way the most important features of the sentence, and namely, predicativity, is reflected in their structure. Since predicativity has three features, th
Communicative types of sentences
The structural types of sentences described in the previous section do not have connections with any special meanings. Yet if we take a sentence and start changing its structure we may observe that
The formal structure of sentences
The formal structure might be presented in several ways. Some of them where described in Chapter One §§ 5-7. A sentence might be presented as a sequence of distributional classes of words. But this
Subject
We defined the subject as such element of a sentence that embodies the personal feature of the predicativity. But this definition does not show formal and semantic (referential) characteristics of
Attribute
Attributes were defined as elements of noun groups. Forms and compositions of adjectives are very variable. The variability of the form of the attribute to a large extent depends on the class of th
Adverbial modifier
The forms and semantic features of adverbial modifies are even more variable than those of attributes. The adverbial modifies might be composed of adverbs, prepositional phrases, verbals and verbal
Phrases and forms of word connections
The IC analysis splits a sentence into phrases that is groups of words connected together. The same groups are found in sentences if we use other types of syntactical analysis. The logical connecti
General remarks
The sentence was defined as a model of some fragment of the world. Besides it is a word or a group of words having predicativity. predicativity was defined as reference of the contents of the utter
Members of the sentence as semantic description of a sentence
The system of members of sentence was initially a syncretic description of form and meaning of elements of a sentence. The meaning of a sentence was identified with a logical union and namely the j
Valence Theory
There were many attempts to overcome inconsistencies of the method of members of sentence. One of the most systematic approaches is known as the valence theory. It is usually considered that the fo
Deep Case Theory
Transformational grammar was the starting point of a rather influentional theory of sentence meaning known as the Deep Case Theory or the Frame Theory. It should be immediately noted that this theo
Compositional Syntax
The concept named "Compositional Syntax" was first formulated and further developed in the Minsk State Linguistic University and more exactly at the department of History and Grammar of E
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