TYPES OF GRAMMATICAL ANALYSIS - раздел Философия, Lectures in Theory of ENGLISH Grammar As It Was Shown In §1, Grammatical Features Are Results Of Formal And Meaning...
As it was shown in §1, grammatical features are results of formal and meaningful oppositions of variants of units. But in actual speech we hear (or see) only one of the variants. It means that we have to discover Grammar so that we can describe it.
To do so we are to find those features that might give us lead to the underlying grammatical system. These features should be a generalised character that is they should be found with all units. Linguistic theory names two such features which represent two modes of Language, they are Syntagmatic properties of units. The syntagmatic properties reflect relationships of units to one another in strings of units of the same kind. The only question they can give answer to is "What follows and what precedes the selected unit?" Paradigmatic relationships reflect ability of a unit to substitute other units in the same position, and the only question they can give answer to is "What units can substitute the selected unit and what units the selected one can substitute?"
The syntagmatic relations depend on the speech, the paradigmatic relations depend upon the system of the language, but yet they interdependent as it what formulated by F. De Saussure, the paradigmatic relations are curtailed syntagmatic relations and the syntagmatic relations are curtailed paradigmatic relations.
We may start with collecting information about syntagmatic features, that is about the positions units may occupy in speech chains. This information then can be used to discover substitutional relations of units, paradigms of a language. This way of analysis is called Distributional and suggested as the main method of linguistic analysis by the American linguist L. Bloomfield in early 1930's and developed in detail by his followers. Though the distributional procedures were used as long as people analyse their languages, L. Bloomfield and his followers transformed it into one of the most powerful instruments of linguistic research.
We may start with collecting information about paradigmatic features of units, that is with their ability to substitute each other and establish as a result the system of language. Afterwards we have to collect information about the positions the variant of the units may occupy. This way of analysis was suggested as the main method of linguistic analysis by the Russian linguist A.I. Bauduin de Courtenay in late 1890's and developed in detail by his followers. Though these procedures were used as long as people analyse their languages, A.I. Bauduin de Courtney and his followers transformed it into even more powerful instruments of linguistic research. This method does not have any generally recognised mane. It is called often OPPOSITIONAL, or PARADIGMATIC, or CATEGORIAL. Because the method results in providing us with sets of categories of a language we shall refer to it as CATEGORIAL.
But there is one more constant feature of all units - they must be pronounced or written, that is they must be produced, created for speech. So we may base our grammatical analysis on the process of creation of linguistic units. This type of Grammar is known as Generative or Transformational. This way of analysis was developed as the main method of linguistic analysis by the American linguist N. Chomsky in late 1950's and developed in detail by his followers. And again, though the distributional procedures were used as long as people analyse their languages, N. Chomsky and his followers transformed it into one of the most powerful instruments of linguistic research.
These three types of analysis separately or in any combination are nowadays used to discover grammatical systems of languages. The methods of course have variants developed due to importance given to different additional features and extent to which other procedures are employed. But their purpose remains invariable - to produce as objective data of a language as possible for further interpretation.
Now we should consider what might be the aims a descriptive Grammar can be used for. We may describe Grammar to understand how it operates in a certain language at a certain period of its existence. As a result we receive a SYNCHRONIC GRAMMAR (distributional, categorial or transformational as a case may be). We may describe Grammar to understand how it changes with time. In this case we try to describe several stages of the same language and receive as a result a DIACHRONIC OR HISTORICAL GRAMMAR (distributional, categorial or transformational as a case may be).
If we want to compare languages then using the same criteria and analytic procedures we make descriptions of the Grammars of the languages we want to compare. Afterwards we may use the information either to register differences and similarities of the languages compared and receive CONFRONTATIONAL Grammar, or we may use it to understand the principles and possible rules of variability of grammatical systems and receive TYPOLOGICAL Grammar.
Thus we may conclude that descriptive Grammars can be:
A. due to analytic procedures:
I. DISTRIBUTIONAL, based on the analysis of positioning of units;
II. CATEGORIAL, based on the analysis of substitution of units;
III. TRANSFORMATIONAL, based on the analysis of procedures used to create units;
Lectures in Theory of ENGLISH Grammar... PART Chapter General Notions of Grammar...
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TYPES OF GRAMMATICAL ANALYSIS
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GRAMMAR IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR IN KNOWLEDGE
When asked what is Grammar, people usually say that it is a set of rules for correct use of words and making sentences. This definition may be accepted if we mean that Grammar is presentation of ou
GRAMMAR AS KNOWLEDGE OF LANGUAGE
In the previous section we found that Grammar as a part of Language is a system presenting meaning through oppositions of variant of units. In this section we shall try to define Grammar as a scien
VARIANTS OF GRAMMARS
Grammatical studies are usually done with a certain aim in mind, and grammatical descriptions vary with them.
There are two main purposes people describe the Grammar of a language. One typ
DISTRIBUTIONAL GRAMMAR. SEGMENTATION PROCEDURES
In §4 we defined distributional Grammar as such description of a grammatical system which starts at the positional (syntagmatic) properties of units. In this section we shall discuss the procedures
DISTRIBUTIONAL GRAMMAR. BASIC NOTIONS.
What has been described is only prerequisite of the analysis. The analysis proper of three steps:
a) identifying environments;
b) arranging distribution;
c) comparing dis
DISTRIBUTIONAL GRAMMAR. IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENTS
Distributional analysis does not usually stop here, but endeavours to discover relations of units within the frame of the larger ones. The methods used at this step is known as IMMEDIATE
He sat looking at the silent telephone.
A)The splitting procedure
The first division should be placed after He. So we receive two constituents of the first level: He and
TRANSFORMATIONAL GRAMMAR. BASIC NOTIONS.
In §7 we found that analytical methods and procedures depend upon the idea of Language. One of the most popular images of Language is presenting it as a mechanism for creating, producing linguistic
TRANSFORMATIONAL GRAMMAR. ANALYTIC PROCEDURES
The aim of the transformational analysis is to discover how the sentence under analysis is generated. To achieve this objective we have to find the kernel structures which are the part of the deep
CATEGORIAL GRAMMAR. GRAMMATICAL MEANING
In §1 we found that that grammar is a system in language which presents meaning through opposition of variants of units. This idea is the basic statement which makes it possible to deduce a great n
CATEGORIAL GRAMMAR. CATEGORIES.
The notion of grammatical category has a great number of different definitions. And still in all of them the key words are general and obligatory. Keeping that in mind we should develop such defini
STRATIFICATION OF LANGUAGE
As we already know the Grammar of Language embraces all its levels and units. The problem here is: How many and what sorts of units must we recognise to be sure that our model of Language (=theory
CATEGORIAL GRAMMAR. DIVISION OF GRAMMAR
As we saw in §14 Grammar may be spread to all types of units and units possess quite different functions and other features Grammar as a system of meaningful oppositions should also have properties
CATEGORIAL GRAMMAR. MORPHOLOGY
As it was shown in§15 Morphology is to be defined in two ways: according to the units described in it and according to properties of the units.
You know since your school years that morpho
CATEGORIAL GRAMMAR. SYNTAX
As it was shown in§15 Syntax is to be defined in two ways: according to the units described in it and according to properties of the units.
The units which are explored with the syntactica
MORPHOLOGICAL TYPOLOGY
As it was shown in § 16 Morphology includes several types of units and two types of grammatical meanings which employ the units as their forms. Besides connection with grammatical meanings the unit
SYNTACTICAL TYPOLOGY
Syntax as a part of grammatical description covers not only grammatical features of sentences, but also their referential meaning (semantic syntax). As a result variants of syntactic units which co
UNITS LARGER THAN A SENTENCE
As we saw in §14, grammatical features may be found in the units larger than a sentence, namely, in the utterances, communicative parts and dialogues. But as we have already mentioned above, these
General remarks.
Traditionally units larger than a sentence are considered to be properties of Speech but not Language. The reason is that a unit of language must be a recurrent, that is repeated element. In this r
Dialogues
If we take the dialogue of the previous section and change its social setting we would receive quite a different structure. Let us see how the dialogue about finding out time can be formed in case
Communicative part
Communicative parts are seldom recognised as linguistic units. The reason is that dialogues or events of communication are usually divided into steps of communication comprising normally two or mor
Illocution
Illocution is what the speaker wants of his or her partner. It can be shown by the verbs that are caller performative. A performative verb is a verb in the form of the first person Present I
Sentence. Definition.
Before we start discussing grammatical features of sentences we have to define their specific property which differentiates them from other units. In the linguistic theory we can find a great numbe
Structural Types of Sentences.
Structural types of sentences depend upon the way the most important features of the sentence, and namely, predicativity, is reflected in their structure. Since predicativity has three features, th
Communicative types of sentences
The structural types of sentences described in the previous section do not have connections with any special meanings. Yet if we take a sentence and start changing its structure we may observe that
The formal structure of sentences
The formal structure might be presented in several ways. Some of them where described in Chapter One §§ 5-7. A sentence might be presented as a sequence of distributional classes of words. But this
Subject
We defined the subject as such element of a sentence that embodies the personal feature of the predicativity. But this definition does not show formal and semantic (referential) characteristics of
Attribute
Attributes were defined as elements of noun groups. Forms and compositions of adjectives are very variable. The variability of the form of the attribute to a large extent depends on the class of th
Adverbial modifier
The forms and semantic features of adverbial modifies are even more variable than those of attributes. The adverbial modifies might be composed of adverbs, prepositional phrases, verbals and verbal
Phrases and forms of word connections
The IC analysis splits a sentence into phrases that is groups of words connected together. The same groups are found in sentences if we use other types of syntactical analysis. The logical connecti
General remarks
The sentence was defined as a model of some fragment of the world. Besides it is a word or a group of words having predicativity. predicativity was defined as reference of the contents of the utter
Members of the sentence as semantic description of a sentence
The system of members of sentence was initially a syncretic description of form and meaning of elements of a sentence. The meaning of a sentence was identified with a logical union and namely the j
Valence Theory
There were many attempts to overcome inconsistencies of the method of members of sentence. One of the most systematic approaches is known as the valence theory. It is usually considered that the fo
Deep Case Theory
Transformational grammar was the starting point of a rather influentional theory of sentence meaning known as the Deep Case Theory or the Frame Theory. It should be immediately noted that this theo
Compositional Syntax
The concept named "Compositional Syntax" was first formulated and further developed in the Minsk State Linguistic University and more exactly at the department of History and Grammar of E
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