2.1. By transcription or transliteration exclusively. The units, whose meanings are rendered at the phonological level, usually belong to genuine internationalisms. For example: New rates per word for ads in hryvnias in the Kiev Post. –
Нові тарифи на рекламу в гривнях за слово в газеті "Київ Пост".
Andrew put out some bottled beer and asked to prepare sandwiches –
Ендрю дістав кілька пляшок пива і попросив приготувати йому сендвічі.
2.2. By transcription or transliteration and explication of their genuine nationally specific meaning.
The explanation may be given either in the translated passage/speech flow or in a footnote when a lengthy explication becomes necessary:
They took her to the Tower of London - Вони показали їй стародавню лондонську фортецю Тауер.
A single policeman guards outside Downing Street -Резиденцію прем'єр-міністра Великобританії охороняє один полісмен.
But a frequent usage of footnotes should be avoided, since footnotes may divert the reader's attention from the content of the passage.
2. 3. By descriptive explaining (explication only).
A considerable number of nationally biased units cannot be rendered into the TL by means of transcription, or might bring about an ambiguity in the TL narration/text. The Tommies were numbered, formed four, right turned and marched away. -Рядових солдатів порахували, вишикували по 4, повернули праворуч і відвели геть, shepherd's pie - картопляна запіканка з м'ясом і цибулею, Union Jack - прапор Великої Британії.
2.4.By translating of componental parts and additional explication of units of the nationally biased lexicon.
The proper meaning of some specific units of the national lexicon can be rendered by way of regular translation of all or some componental parts and explication of the denotative meaning pertaining to the SL units (regular t-n of componental parts + exhaustive explanation of the essence of the specific national element). When translating at 1anguage level (out of context) the explanation may be unrestricted: bull's eyes -бичаче око (круглий великий різноколірний м'ятний льодяник), ginger ale - імбирний ель/ситро (безалкогольний (сильно) газований напій). But in the text of a translation explanations are usually given in the footnotes.
Long and very detailed explanation is not desirable .Students should not unnecessarily enlarge the explanation. Laconism should be the prevailing principle.
2.5.By ways of word- for-word or loan translation. Translated word - for - word are the specific national units of lexicon as: first reading - перше читання, secondary grammar school – середня граматична школа, щоденник учнівський - student's everyday record book, etc.
The denotative meaning may be rendered by way of loan translating as well. Thus: Salvation Army (USA, Gr. Britain) -Армія порятунку, Fan club - клуб прихильників, орден Ярослава Мудрого - the Order of Yaroslav the Wise.
The number of English genuine translation loans in Ukrainian, as well as Ukrainian in English, is considerable. So there is the number of word - for - word translations, as can be seen from some of the examples below: cornflakes - кукурудзяні пластівці; skyscraper - хмарочос; super-market - універсам; brain washing - промивання мізків; медаль за трудову доблесть -the Medal for Labor Distinction.
2.6.Translating by means of semantic analogies.
Some peculiar notions in SL and TL may be identical or analogous in their meaning and functioning. It happens due to the existence of common occupations, social services, food, etc. Sometimes they may appear as a result of direct or indirect borrowings. The City/Town Board of Education - міський відділ освіти, дипломна робота - graduation essay / project, курсова робота – term/yearly essay/project, курси вдосконалення- refresher course, підвищення кваліфікації - in - service training course, консультація - tutorial.
Sometimes translation of analogous units can be achieved only with the help of additional explications: summer school - літня школа (курс лекцій, семінарів, практичних занять для підвищення кваліфікації іноземних вчителів та студентів), caravanning - проводити літній час/відпустку, подорожуючи в будиночку - причепі).