Results of semantic change can be generally seen in the changes of the denotational meaning of the word - restriction and extention of meaning, or in the change of its connotational component - amelioration and deterioration of meaning - elevation and degradation of meaning. Restriction takes place more often than extention.
Changes in the denotational meaning may result in the narrowing or extention of meaning, i.e., a -word of wide meaning gets a narrower sense in which it denotes only some of the objects which it had previously denoted, or a word of narrow meaning becomes the one with extended meanings. The examples of narrowing of meanings: the word hound (OE hund) was used to denote a dog of any breed, but now it denotes only a dog used in the chase -гончая.
Mod E deer - a particular kind of beast - олень, OE - wild beast;
Mod E meat - eatable flesh (мясо), OE - food;
Mod E to teach - OE to show;
Mod E to write - OE to scratch.
Terms of wide sense may narrow in meaning in a concrete situation. Thus, the River is to a Londoner the Thames; the Abbey stands for Westminster Abbey; the Tower - a museum now; the City - the business part of London; Oxford - the university, etc. One of the commonest ways of narrowing of meaning is to add a qualifying word: corn (grain) - Indian corn (maize) - кукуруза, engine - steam engine.
Extension of meaning means extension of the word-range, that is to say the change of specific to general, e.g., the following words underwent several changes:
pipe: 1. originally - a simple musical instrument made of wood; 2. of any other material; 3. other things resembling this musical instrument in shape; 4. a general name for a hollow cylindrical body;
box: l.a container for solid objects or substances, drugs and money; 2. other things bearing a close resemblance in form and use; 3. a chest for holding clothes; 4. a box in a stable, in a theatre, a signalman's box;
target: 1. a small round shield; 2. now - anything that is fired at and figuratively any result aimed at;
camp (Latin - campus): 1. the place where troops are lodged in tents; 2. temporary quarters of travellers, nomads.
Extension of meaning is often due to contiguity or similarity. Thus, very often proper names become common nouns: mackintosh, sandwich, colt, etc.
In all the above-mentioned cases the denotational meaning was changed. But there are cases of changes in the connotational component. The changes in the connotational meaning may be subdivided into two main groups:
- degradation of meaning;
- elevation of meaning.
Degradation of meaning involves a lowering in social scale, reflection of the contempt of the upper classes towards the lower ones, e.g.:
wench 1. дочь, сирота, 2. крестьянская девушка, 3. грубая девка;
knave (German knabe): 1. a boy, 2. a servant, 3. any low person; 4. a term of contempt in general referring to any person, a scoundrel - негодяй, подлец;
hoor: 1. a villager - крестьянин, 2. clumsy or ill-bread fellow - грубиян, грубый человек;
villain: 1. a villager, a peasant - крестьянин, 2. a term of scorn - презрение, 3. a scoundrel, a ruffian - хулиган, буян, головорез, злодей, негодяй;
blackguard: I. a servant who was in guard of kitchen things black with soot, 2. a scoundrel, due to the contempt of masters for the servants - подлец, бездельник.
Sometimes a word is neutral in meaning but its derivative has a derogatory, degraded meaning: design - замышлять, designing - коварный, лука-
вый, art - artful (cunning), scheme - scheming (intriguing), mood - moody (out of humour) - унылый.
Elevation of meaning is a semantic shift undergone by words due to their referents coming up the social scale, e.g.:
steward- an attendant on ships and airlines but originally - a person who took care of pigs (stigo - a sty, weard - ward);
minister - a civil servant of higher rank, originally - a servant, an attendant, then a priest;
marshal - a high military rank, originally - a horse-servant;
queen — originally a woman;
knight - originally a young servant, now a man who receives a title of honour;
nice - originally foolish, now - тонкий, умелый, отличный;
fame - слава; originally a report, common talk, rumour.
The causes, nature and result of semantic changes should be viewed as three essentially different but inseparable aspects of one and the same linguistic phenomenon, as any change of meaning may be investigated from the point of view of its cause, nature and its consequences. Essentially the same causes may bring about different results, e.g., the semantic development in the word knight (OE cniht) from «a boy servant» to «a young warrior» and eventually to the meaning it possesses in Modern English due to extralinguistic causes just as the semantic change in the word boor, but the results are different. In the case of boor we observe pejorative development while in the case of blight we observe elevation of the connotational component.