Euphemism is a frequent occurrence in Modem English, it is a wider phenomenon than a taboo was, and it has spread to many spheres of life. Such euphemisms can be called social taboos.
The word lavatory has produced a great number of euphemisms: powder room, washroom, restroom, retiring room, comfort station, ladies' room, gentlemen's room, water-closet, W.C., Windsor Castle (comical phrase for deciphering), this is it! (coll.), to spend a penny, to wash one's hands; where is what do you call it?
Pregnancy is another topic for «delicate» references: to have a belly, she eaten beans, (big) with child, with a baby coming, in an interesting condition, in a delicate condition, in the family way.
The word trousers not so long ago, had a great number of euphemisms: unmentionables, unwhisperables, indescribables, inexpressibles, sit-upons, etc.
The adjective drunk is often substituted by: merry, fresh, overcome, full (coll.); drunk as a Lord (coll.), drunk as an owl (coll.), soaked (si.), half-seas-over (si.), high as a kite (si.), tight (si.), intoxicated (formal), under the influence (form.).
Euphemisms may be used due to concern not to hurt someone's feelings, e.g., a liar can be described as a person who does not always strictly tell the truth, untruthful; a stupid man - not exactly brilliant, unwise; dirty - untidy, unclear; slattern - inaccurate, etc.; naked- in one's birthday shirt; overeating -indigestion; sweat - perspiration.
Mental diseases also cause wide use of euphemisms: a mad person may be described as insane, mentally unstable, mentally deficient (m.d.), unbalanced, not quite right (coll.), not all there (coll.), off one's head (coll.), wrong in the upper storey (coll.), cuckoo (si.), loony (si.), etc.
A clinic for such patients can be referred to as asylum, sanitarium, sanatorium (mental) institution, and less discreetly (осторожно) - a nut house (si.), loony bin (si.), etc.
As we see by the above-mentioned examples, the main types of euphemisms are:
- learned or scientific terms (which are less familiar and less offensive),
e.g. indigestion;
- words with the negative prefixes un-, in-: unwise, untidy;
- phraseological units: to kick the bucket; in one's birthday shirt ;
- slang, colloquial words and phrases;
- abbreviations: m.d., T.B., W.C.
So, originally closely connected with religion euphemisms have been extended to words denoting different diseases, criminal activities or anything which is considered improper in a given society. They have become a social phenomenon of wide semantic range.
Special euphemistic language penetrates literally into all spheres of life. In the USA euphemisms are especially widely used in the language of advertisements, slang and professional jargon. Some examples:
pawnshops (ломбардные лавки) are called in the USA advertisements loan and jewelry companies (компании ювелирных изделий и по представлению займов);
used cars (second-hand cars) - pre-owned cars (ранее находившиеся во владении);
fall (спад) - easing (затишье в деловых операциях).
То avoid words revealing bad state of economy instead of chronic inflation gradual increase in prices and wages (постепенный рост цен и зарплаты) is used; the poor - the neediest (очень нуждающиеся), the needy (нуждающиеся), the ill-provided (плохо обеспеченные), the deprived (лишенные благ), the underpriviledged (мало привилегированные), the disadvantaged (попавшие в менее благоприятные жизненные обстоятельства), low-income people (малообеспеченные).
Euphemisms are of great interest in the sphere of classifying professions. Very unusual words are often used:
garbage collector (уборщик мусора) - sanitation engineer (инженер по вопросам санитарии);
rat-catcher (человек, устанавливающий ловушки для крыс) -extermination engineer (специалист по истреблению грызунов);
dog-catcher (ловец бродячих собак) - animal welfare officer (сотрудник по вопросам охраны животных);
stool pigeon (доносчик) - police informant (полицейский информатор).
In class struggle people do the following:
sit-down strike - work ceasation on premises (прекращение работы в помещении);
to exploit - to use without reward (пользоваться чьими-либо услугами без вознаграждения).
So we see that euphemisms are a very complex and contradictory phenomenon. In some cases euphemisms are just to the point. So, in fiction usage of euphemisms is an effective stylistic means for writers, and they do it to depict their characters. In medicine, in the language of diplomacy euphemisms are also appropriate. In general, euphemism has become a wide social phenomenon.