a) In GA [r] is retroflex (pronounced with the tip of the tongue curled back). At least 3 degrees of retroflexion which affect the preceding vowel:
RP hurry [hÙri], worry [wÙri]
GA hurry [hәri], worry [wәri]
b) The Am [t] in the intervocalic position is realized as a flap: the tip of the tongue beats against the teeth ridge just once. Acoustically it reminds [d] and [r].
RP better [betә]
GA better [bәtә]
c) When t follows n, it is nearly omitted. Nasalization of the vowel is another feature caused by coarticulation with n.
RP twenty [twenti],
GA twenty [twõni]
d) The sound [t] is also affected by the process of glotalization in both varieties of English, British and American, and American and the frequency of its occurrence is socially marked. One of the most favourable conditions for glottal stop to replace [t] before [m, n, l, r, j, w]:
That man [thә? mәn], that one [thә? wan]
e) The sound [j] in AmEn is generally omitted:
RP news [nju:z]
GA news [nu:z]
f) in GA the sound [l] is “dark” (non-palatalized) in all positions while in RP it is “clear” before a front vowel and “dark” at the end of a word and before a consonant:
RP little [litł]
GA little [łitł]
g) Apart from systemic differences, there are lexical items which are pronounced differently:
RP tomato [tәma:tәυ]
GA tomato [tәmeitou]
Áèëåò 6
Speech rhythm: definition, functions.
R. (in general)- periodicity in time and space(day-night, seasons, breathing-running). Speech production is closely connected with breathing. Any type of S.Act-ty tends to be rhythmical because of its condition by breathing. Types: monologue, dialogue, reading, poetic speech. S.R. can be regarded as language universal since speech in any lang-ge is supposed to be rhythmical.
R. in phonetics- the occurance of units of speech at regular intervals of time.Acc.to the most general definition, there must be in speech some unit which is repeated at equal period of time. The unit which repeated regularly is not the same in dif.lang-ges. →2 types of lang-ges distinguished in this respect:
1. With syllable-timed rhythm(ñëîãî-ñ÷èòàþùèé ðèòì); 2.With stress- timed rhythm (òàêòî-ñ÷èòàò).
1. any syllable(stressed/unstressed)counts at equal period of time;(French,Italian, Spanish,Hindy) 2. Only stressed syllables count at equal periods( English, Russian, Modern Greek, Arabic).
The theory that E. has stress-timed R. implies that stressed syl-s occure at equal periods of time and it doesn’t matter if they are separated by unstr. Syl-s or not.( ‘Walk ‘ down the ‘ path to the ‘end of the ca’nal.- 0-1-2-3(unstressed syl-s;the time period b/stressed -the same).
Scholars have attempted to find an explanation why lang-s like French, Japanese, Spanish are categorized differ-ly from lang-s like English, Russian and German. 1.There is considerable variation in syl-l length in E.,as well sa differ.kinds of syllables + open syl-s make up a minority of the total in E.,compared with the minority in Spanish. 2.E. uses a restricted set of vowels in unstressed syl-s, typically [∂] or [i].E.stressed syl-s are typically 1,5 times longer than unstressed ones, while in Spanish they are about 1,3 times longer.This makes E.stressed syl-s even more prominent than unstressed syl-s, giving a clearly discernable beat to which listeners are sensitive.
R. serves to unite elements in speech(smaller units into larger ones). On the other hand larger units fall into smaller ones(stanza-lines). So, R. unites text segments and at the same time it cuts the discourse into elements. R. performs the intergrative and delimitative function. Aesthetic function(from the phsycolinguist.p.of.v)- the accuracy of the temporal similarity has a certain effect on a human being. This function is espes-ly well-manifested in poetry.The results of the experiments: R.groups in poetry don’t exceed 1 second.→there is a certain connection b/length of a R.group and the human being. It may explain the phsycologic.influence of the poetic speech on a person. In prose the duration of sense groups doesn’t exceed 2 seconds-we can correlate the length of R.group with the length of the breathing cycle. The regularity in SR seems to be in harmony with the biologic.rhythms of a man.
PHONOLOGICAL AND NON-PHONOLOGICAL FEATURES IN THE SYSTEM OF ENGLISH CONSONANTS (10)
In phonology the basic method of establishing the phonemic status of a sound is the method of finding minimal pairs. The method consists in finding at least one pair of words which are different in respect of that sound: pit – bit. When two words are identical except for one sound which makes a contrast in the meaning of words, they are said to form a minimal pair. The minimal pair may be 2 words or 2 gram-l forms of a word: man – men. Thus, the function of phonology is to relate the phonetic events of speech to gr-l units operation at the morphological, lexical, syntactic and semantic levels of lang-e.
Sounds are grouped into classes according to the features which are distinctive for the particular language. In English the following features are distinctive for consonants:
type of obstruction:
occlusive (in the production of which a complete obstruction is formed): [pul];
constructive (an incomplete obstruction is formed): [ful]:
place of articulation:
a) labial: [p], [b], [m], [w];
b) labio-dental (cons-s are articulated with the lower lip against the upper teeth): [f], [v];
c) dental (articulated against the upper teeth either with the tip: [θ], [ð] or with the blade of the tongue);
d) alveolar (cons-s are articulated by the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge): [t], [d], [n], [l], [s], [z];
e) palatal: [j];
f) alveolar-velar: [ł]
g) glottal (are produced in the glottis): .
manner of production of noise:
a) plosive oral stop: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g];
b) fricative:
c) affricate: [tò], [dæ];
d) approximant.
2) presence or absence of voice:
a) voiced (lenis): [b], [d], [g], [dæ], [v], [ð], [z], [æ], [m], [n], [ŋ], [w], [l], [r], [j];
b) voiceless (fortis); they are pronounced with greater muscular tension and a stronger breath force: [p], [t], [k], [tò], [f], [θ], [s], [ò], [h].
3) position of the soft palate and the velum:
a) oral (consonants are produced when the soft palate is raised and the air escapes through the mouth): the rest of the consonants;
b) nasal (consonants are produced with the soft palate lowered while the air-passage through the mouth is blocked. As a result, the air escapes through the nasal cavity): [m], [n], [ŋ].
In each minimal pair the opposition is based either on:
§ one feature (single opposition): [pit – bit]: voiceless (fortis) vs. voiced (lenis);
§ two features (double opposition): [til – bil]: voiceless (fortis) vs. voiced (lenis) and alveolar vs. labial;
§ more than two features (multiple): [fil – bil]: voiceless (fortis) vs. voiced (lenis), labio-dental vs. labial, fricative vs. oral stop (plosive).