THE NON-FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB

Verbals are the forms of the verb intermediary in many of their lexico-grammatical features between the verb and the non-processual parts of speech. Thus, these forms possess some verbal and some non-verbal features.The non-finite forms are four in number, they are: the infinitive, the gerund, participle I and participle II. Non-finites possess the verb categories of voice, perfect, and aspect. Syntactically the verbal character of non-finites is manifested mainly in their combinability. All non-finite verb forms may participate in the so-called predicative constructions.

THE INFINITIVE

The infinitive serves as the verbal name of a process. It is considered as the head-form of the whole paradigm of the verb. The infinitive has a double nature: it combines verbal features with those of the noun. The verbal features of the infinitive are of two kinds: morphological and syntactical. Morphological: the infinitive distinguishes three grammatical categories sharing them with the finite verb, namely, the aspective category of development (continuous in opposition), the aspective category of retrospective coordination (perfect in opposition), the category of voice (passive in opposition). Thus, the infinitive of transitive verbs has six forms. The verb-type combinability of the infinitive is displayed in its combining, first, with nouns expressing the object of the action; second, with nouns expressing the subject of the action; third, with modifying adverbs. The infinitive performs the functions of all types of notional sentence-parts, i. e. the subject, the object, the predicative, the attribute, the adverbial modifier

THE GERUND

The gerund is a non-finite form of the verb with some noun features. The gerund serves as the verbal name of a process. The general combinability of the gerund is dual. Morphologically the verbal character of the gerund is manifested in the categories of voice and perfect. The verb-type combinability of the gerund is displayed in its combining with with nouns expressing the object of the action; second, with modifying adverbs; third, with certain semi-functional predicator verbs, but other than modal. The nominal character of the gerund reveals itself syntactically, mainly in its syntactical function, partly in its combinability. Like a noun, it can function as subject, object, or predicative. When it is an attribute or an adverbial modifier, a gerund, like a noun is preceded by a preposition. The fact that the gerund can associate with a preposition is a sure sign of noun features. Like a noun, but unlike the other non-finites, it can combine with a possessive pronoun and a noun in the genitive case denoting the doer of the action expressed by the gerund. It distinguishes two grammatical categories: of retrospect (perfect in opposition), and the category of voice (passive in opposition). Thus, the categorial paradigm of the gerund of the objective verb includes four forms. The gerund performs the functions of all types of notional sentence-parts, i. e. the subject, the object, the predicative, the attribute, the adverbial modifier

THE PARTICIPLE

There are two forms of the participle – participle I and participle II. The present participle is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb with those of the adjective and adverb, serving as the qualifying-processual name. Since it possesses some traits both of adjective and adverb, the present participle is not only dual, but triple by its lexico-grammatical properties, which is displayed in its combinability, as well as in its syntactic functions. The past participle is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb with those of the adjective, serving as the qualifying-processual name. The verbal character of participle I is manifested morphologically in the categories of voice and perfect and syntactically in its combinability. The adjectival and adverbial features of participle I are manitested in its syntactical functions as an attribute and an adverbial modifier. The adjectival nature of participle II manifests itself in its function in the sentence, which is usually that of either attribute or predicative. The verbal character of participle II is manifested in its combinability. The present participle distinguishes the grammatical categories of retrospective coordination and voice. Thus, the categorial paradigm of the present participle of the objective verb includes four forms. The past participle is a single form, having no paradigm of its own.

THE ADJECTIVE

The meaning of adjective is property of the thingness. According to the way of nomination all the adjectives are traditionally divided into two large subclasses: qualitative and relative. According to their morphological composition adjectives can be subdivided into simple, derived and compound. Only qualitative adjectives have the category of degrees of comparison (positive, comparative, superlative) Ways of formation may be synthetic, analytical and suppletive. The synthetic way is by adding the suffixes-er, -estt. This means is found with monosyllabic and some disyllabic adjectives in which the stress falls on the last syllable, in which the second syllable is the syllabic [l], with adjectives in-er, -y, -some, -ow. Polysyllabic adjectives form their degrees of comparison analytic­ally, by means ofmore and most.Several adjectives form their degrees of comparison irregularly. These are suppletive forms. In the sentence the adjective performs the functions of an attribute and a predicative. Of the two, the more specific function of the adjective is that of an attribute, since the function of a predicative can be performed by the noun as well.

THE STATIVE

The stative denotes a temporary state of a person or a non-person. Unlike such classes of words as nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs the number of statives functioning in English is limited. There are about 30 stable statives, used both in colloquial and in formal style and about 100 unstable ones, which are seldom used even in formal style and never in colloquial. Semantically statives fall into five groups describing various states of persons or non-persons.

From the point of view of their morphological composition the class of statives is homogeneous, that is all of them have a special marker, the prefixa-. As regards their structure, statives with the marker a- fall into two groups: those that can be divided into morphemes (the prefix a- and the stem of a noun, a verb, or an adjective), and those that cannot be divided because the part following a- does not correspond to any noun, verb, or adjective stem (aloof, aware, afraid). When they have the function of objective predicative, statives describe the state of the person or non-person denoted by the object. Although the function of attribute is not characteristic of statives, some of them may have this function (either detached or undetached attributes). Thus, the analysis shows that statives, though forming a unified set of words, do not constitute a separate lexemic class existing in language. They should be looked upon as a subclass within the general class of adjectives. Statives as undetached attributes are always postmodifying. When used as detached attributes, statives may be either post- or premodifying.

THE ADVERB

There are 3 types of adverbs in modern Grammatik: qualitative (-ly или совпадают), quantitative ( very, too, extremely), circumstantial (of time – tomorrow, of place – here). Adverbs vary in their structure. There are simple, derived, compound, and composite adverbs. Simple e.g. after, here, well. Derived e.g. lately, sideways, home-wards. Compound e.g. sometimes, downstairs, everywhere. Composite phrasal e.g. a little bit, far enough, sort of/

The three grades are calledpositive, comparative, and superlative degrees. Only qualitative adverbs can have degrees of comparison. Adverbs that are identical in form with adjectives take inflections following the same spelling and phonetic rules as for adjectives. However most disyllabic adverbs in-ly and all polysyllabic ones form the comparative and superlative analytically, by means ofmore andmost. There is a small group of adverbs with comparatives and superlatives formed from different stems(suppletive forms).Adverbs may function as adverbial modifiers of manner, place, time, degree to a finite or non-finite form of the verb. Adverbs may also function as adverbial modifiers to an adjective or another adverb.

 

3. PRIMARY PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

THE SUBJECT

From the point of view of its grammatical value the subject may be either notional or formal. The notional subject denotes or (points out a person or a non-person, that is, various kinds of concrete things, substances, abstract no­tions or happening.

The formal subject neither denotes nor points out any person or non-person and is only a structural element of the sentence filling the position of the subject. Thus a formal subject functions only as a position-filler. In English there are two such position-fillers: it and there.

THE PREDICATE

Structurally the predicate in English expressed by a finite verb agrees with the subject in number and person. The only exception to this rule is a compound modal and a simple nominal predicate, the latter having no verb form at all.

According to the meaning of its components, the predicate may denote an action, a state, a quality, or an attitude to some action or state ascribed to the subject. These different meanings find their expression in the structure of the predicate and the lexical meaning of its constituents.

From the structural point of view there are two main types of predicate: the simple predicate and the compound predicate (Fig. 121). Both these types may be either nominal or verbal, which gives four sub-groups: simple verbal, simple nominal, compound verbal, compound nominal.

The simple predicate can be of two types: verbal and nominal I was sent in to get my tea. She, a nun! You sad!

The compound predicate consists of two parts: the notional and the structural. The structural part comes first and is followed by the notional part.

 

 

 

4. SECONDARY PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

THE OBJECT

The object is a secondary part of the sentence referring to some other part of the sentence and expressed by a verb, an adjective, a stative or, very seldom, an adverb completing, specifying, or restricting its meaning.

From the point of view of their value and grammatical peculiarities, four types of objects can be distinguished in English. The direct object is a non-prepositional one that follows transitive verbs, adjectives, or statives and completes their meaning. The indirect object also follows verbs, adjectives and statives. Unlike the direct object, however, it may be attached to intransitive verbs as well as to transitive ones. The cognate object is a non-prepositional object which is attached to otherwise intransitive verbs and is always expressed by nouns derived from, or semantically related to, the root of the governing verb.

The term “the retained object” is to be applied in case an active construction is transformed into a passive one and the indirect object of the active construction becomes the subject of the passive construction. The second object, the direct one, may be retained in the transformation, though the action of the predicate-verb is no more directed upon it. Therefore it is called a retained object.

THE ATTRIBUTE

The attribute is a secondary part of the sentence which characterizes person or non-person expressed by the headword either qualitatively, quantitatively, or from the point of view of situation. An attribute forms a nominal phrase with its headword. An attribute may be expressed by different parts of speech (Fig. 132). From the point of view of their connection with the headword and other parts of the sentence, attributes may be divided into non-detached (close) and detached (loose) ones. He was a big strong man. Big and strong, he impressed us greatly. (необособленные, обособленные).

THE APPOSITION (приложение)

An apposition is a part of the sentence expressed by a noun or nominal phrase and referring to another noun or nominal phrase (the headword), or sometimes to a clause. The apposition may give another designation to, or description of, the person or non-person, or else put it in a certain class of persons or non-persons. Like the attribute, the apposition may be in preposition or postposition. However, unlike the attribute, which is always subordinated to its headword and is usually connected with other parts in the sentence only through it, words in apposition are, at least syntactically, coordinated parts, that is, both the headword and the apposition are constituents of the same level in the sentence. From the point of view of their relation to the headword, appositions, like attributes, are subdivided into non-detached (close) and detached (loose) onesNon-detached appositions form one sense group with their headword and very often enter into such close relation with it that the two words form one whole. This is especially true in the case of titles, military ranks, professions, kinship terms, geographical denotations, etc., used as apposition.Detached or loose appositions form separate sense groups and are wider in their meaning than close appositions: they may give identification, explanation, etc., especially when referring to pronouns. They may follow the headword immediately or be separated from it.

THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER

The adverbial modifier (or the adverbial) is a secondary part of the sentence which modifies another part of the sentence expressed either by a verb (in a finite or non-finite form), or an adjective, or a stative, or an adverb.

An adverbial modifier may be expressed by different parts of speech From the point of view of its structure the adverbial modifier may be simple We started early, phrasal We started at five in the morning. , complex John sat with his elbows on the table and his hands clasped. , clausal When the cat is away, the mice will play. Semantically adverbials denote place, time, manner, cause, purpose, result, condition, concession, attendant circumstances, comparison, degree, measure, exception, thus forming semantic classes, such as adverbials of place, time, etc

 

5. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

The simple sentence is a sentence built up on one predicative line.

There are 5 principals of classifying simple sentences in English.

1) According to their structure: one-member and two-member. One-member sentences are simple sentences that have only 1 principle part which is neither the subject, nor the predicate: nominal, verbal. Two-member sentences are simple sentences that have the subject and the predicate: complete, incomplete. Two-member incomplete sentences are simple sentences in which either the subject or the predicate sometimes both of them are omitted.

2) According to the type of the subject simple sentences can be personal and impersonal. Impersonal simple sentences are the sentences in which the subject is expressed by ‘it’ or ‘there’. All the rest are classified as personal.

3) According to the type of predicate: process featuring (verbal), substance featuring. process featuring are sentences with verbal predicate (I’m doing my work).

4) According to the subject-object relation (по наличию глагола прямого дополнения): subjective He lives IN London; objective I am doing___my work; potential objective I am reading (a book).

5) According to the presence or absence of the secondary parts: extended; unextended.

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

The complex sentence is a polypredicative construction built up on the principle of subordination. The complex sentence of minimal composition includes two clauses — a principal one and a subordinate one. The subordinate clause is joined to the principal clause either by a subordinating connector (subordinator), or, with some types of clauses, asyndetically. Subordination is marked by some formal signals. These formal signs may be conjunctions or connectives. Conjunctions are specialized formal devices (connectors) the only function of which is to link clauses and express the relation between them. Connectives combine two functions – that of linking clauses and that of a part in the subordinate clause.

There exist two different bases of classifying subordinate clauses: the first is functional, the second is categorical.

In accord with the functional principle, subordinate clauses are to be classed on the analogy of the positional parts of the simple sentence. Subordinate clauses function as different parts of the sentence (subject, predicative, object, apposition, attribute, adverbial modifier). Traditionally these numerous types of clauses are arranged in three groups: nominal clauses (that is, clauses functioning as nouns in various syntactical positions), attributive clauses, and adverbial clauses. All nominal clauses have a function approximating to that of a noun or a nominal phrase. They may fulfill the function of a basic part of the main clause: a subject clause functions as subject of the main clause which has no subject of its own, a predicative clause functions as predicative to the link verb within the main clause; an object clause refers to verbs in different forms and functions, to adjectives, statives and occasionally to nouns, and may be obligatory or optional (Fig. 149). All nominal clauses are very closely connected with the main clause, and if such a clause is removed, both the structure and meaning of the sentence are changed or become ungrammatical.

THE COMPOUND SENTENCES

The compound sentence is a composite sentence built on the principle of coordination. Coordination can be expressed either syndetically or asyndetically. A compound sentence consists of two or more clauses of equal rank which form one syntactical whole in meaning and intonation. Clauses that are parts of a compound sentence are called coordinate, as they are joined by coordination. The main semantic feature of the compound sentence is that it follows the flow of thought; thus the content of each successive clause is related to the previous one. Hence come two syntactical features of the compound sentence which distinguish it from the complex sentence: 1) the opening clause mostly plays the leading role, and each successive clause is joined to the previous clause; 2) the clauses are sequentially fixed. Thus a coordinate clause cannot change place with the previous one without changing or distorting the meaning of the whole sentence From the point of view of the relationship between coordinate clauses four kinds of coordinate connection are distinguished: copulative, adversative, disjunctive and causative-consecutive (Fig. 145). The type of connection is expressed not only by means of coordinating connectives, but also by the general meaning of clauses conveyed by their lexical and grammatical content. Copulative coordination implies that the information conveyed by coordinate clauses is in some way similar. The connectors are: the conjunctions and, nor, neither... nor, not only... but (also), as well as, and the conjunctive adverbs then, moreover, besides. Adversative coordination joins clauses containing opposition, contradiction or contrast. Adversative connectors are: the conjunctions but, while, whereas, the conjunctive adverbs however, yet, still, nevertheless, and the conjunctive particle only. Adversative coordination may also be realized asyndetically. Disjunctive coordination implies a choice between two mutually exclusive alternatives. The disjunctive conjunctions are or, either... or, the conjunctive adverbs are else (or else), otherwise. Causative-consecutive coordination joins clauses connected in such a way that one of them containsa reason and the other – a consequence. The second clause may contain either the reason or the result of the event conveyed by the previous clause. The only causative coordinating conjunction is for.

SEMI-COMPOSITE SENTENCE

The semi-composite sentence is to be defined as a sentence with more than one predicative lines which are expressed in fusion. One of these lines can be identified as the leading or dominant, the others making the semi-predicative expansion of the sentence. The semi-composite sentence displays an intermediary syntactic character between the composite sentence and the simple sentence. There are two different causes of the existence of the semi-composite sentence in language, each of them being essentially important in itself. The first cause is the tendency of speech to be economical. The second cause is that the semi-composite sentence fulfils its own purely semantic function, different from the function of the composite sentence proper. It is used to show that the events described in the corresponding sentence parts are more closely connected than the events described in the parts of the composite sentence of complete composition. This function is inherent in the structure – it reflects the speaker’s view of reality, his presentation of it. Semi-composite sentences can be of two types .

 

 

 

The semi-compound sentence is a semi-composite sentence built up on the principle of coordination. The structure of the semi-compound sentence is derivationally to be traced back to minimum two base sentences having an identical element belonging to one or both of their principal syntactic positions, i.e. either the subject, or the predicate, or both (Fig. 154). By the process of semi-compounding, the sentences overlap round the identical element sharing it in coordinative fusion, which can be either syndetic or asyndetic.

 

The semi-compound sentence of subject coordination is derived from minimum two base sentences having identical predicates, e.g. two subjects relate to one predicate when they are discontinuously positioned, so that the first starts the utterance, while the second concludes it with some kind of process-referred introduction. The semi-compound sentence of predicate coordination is derived from minimum two base sentences having identical subjects. One of the base sentences becomes the leading clause of complete structure, while the other one is transformed into the sequential coordinate semi-clause (expansion) referring to the same subject. The semi-complex sentence is a semi-composite sentence built up on the principle of subordination. The semi-complex sentences fall into a number of subtypes (Fig. 155). Their basic division is dependent on the character of predicative fusion: this may be effected either by the process of position-sharing (word-sharing), or by the process of direct linear expansion. The sentences based on position-sharing fall into those of subject-sharing and those of object-sharing. The sentences based on semi-predicative linear expansion fall into those of attributive complication, adverbial complication, and nominal-phrase complication. Each subtype is related to a definite complex sentence as its explicit structural prototype. Semi-complex sentences of subject-sharing are built up by means of the two base sentences overlapping round the common subject. Semi-complex sentences of object-sharing are built up of two base sentences overlapping round the word performing different functions in them: in the matrix sentence it is the object, in the insert sentence it is the subject. The complicator expansion of such sentences is commonly called the “complex object”. Semi-complex sentences of attributive complication are derived from two base sentences having an identical element that occupies the position of the subject in the insert sentence and any notional position in the matrix sentence. The insert sentence is usually an expanded one. Semi-complex sentences of adverbial complication are derived from two base sentences one of which, the insert sentence, is predicatively reduced and embedded in an adverbial position of the other one, the matrix sentence. Semi-complex sentences of nominal phrase complication are derived from two base sentences one of which, the insert sentence, is partially norminalised (changed into a verbal phrase of infinitival or gerundial type) and embedded in one of the nominal and prepositional adverbial positions of the other sentence serving as the matrix. The gerundial phrase is of a more substantive semantic character, the infinitival phrase is of a more processual semantic character. The gerundial nominalisalion involves the optional change of the noun subject into the possessive, while the infinitival nominalisation involves the use of the preposition for before the subject.