Transitivity and intransivity in the dialects of South-West England

Transitivity and intransivity in the dialects of South-West England.

One of the most important aspects of studying south-western English is dialect syntax.

So, the article by Jean- Marc Gachelin can give us much information about transitivity and intransitivity in the dialects of South-West England.

Wakelin has pointed out that syntax is an unwieldy subject which dialectologists have fought shy of. This brushing aside of dialect syntax is regrettable because the study of grammatical variation can shed light on the workings of any language, and thereby enrich general linguistics.

The present chapter deals with an area of dialect syntax - transitivity in south-west of England dialects - and attempts to characterize and explain, synchronically and diachronically, its salient features.

We prefer the moderation of Kilby, who simply admits that the notion of direct object DO is not at all transparent in its usage.

The problem, therefore, should be not so much to discard but rather to improve our notions of transitivity and intransitivity.

In this regard, the dialects of South-west England are important and interesting. 1. A description of transitivity and intransitivity in the dialects of South-west England.

When compared with the corresponding standard language, any geographical variety may be characterized by three possibilities a identity b archaism due to slower evolution and c innovation.

Interestingly enough, it is not uncommon in syntax for b and c to combine if a given dialect draws extensively on a secondary aspect of an older usage. This is true of two features which are highly characteristic of the South-west and completely absent in contemporary Standard English. 1.1 Infinitive y One of these characteristics is mentioned by Wakelin, the optional addition of the -y ending to the infinitive of any real intransitive verb or any transitive verb not followed by a DO, namely object-deleting verbs ODVs and ergatives.

The use of this ending is not highlighted in the Survey of English Dialects SED, Orton and Wakelin. It is only indirectly, when reading about relative pronouns, that we come upon There iddn isnt many who can sheary now, recorded in Devon Orton and Wakelin. However, Widen gives the following examples heard in Dorset farmy, flickery, hoopy to call, hidy, milky, panky to pant, rooty talking of a pig, whiny.

Three of these verbs are strictly intransitive ftickery, panky, whiny, the others being ODVs. Wright also mentions this characteristic, chiefly in connection with Devon, Somerset and Dorset.

In the last century, Barnes made use of the -y ending in his Dorset poems, both when the infinitive appears after to reдky rake skimmy drashy thresh reely and after a modal as in the example from the SED Mid may happy housen smoky round The church.

The cat veil zick an woulden mousy.

But infin. y can also be found after do auxiliary, which in South-west dialects is more than a more signal of verbality, serving as a tense-marker as well as a person-marker do everywhere except for dost, 2nd pers. sing Instead of being emphatic, this do can express the progressive aspect or more often the durative-habitual imperfective aspect, exactly like the imperfect of Romance languages.

Here are a few examples culled from Barness poems Our merry sheдpes did jumpy.

When I do pitchy, tis my pride meaning of the verb, cf pitch-fork. How gaя the paths be where we do strolly. Besides ODVs and intransitive verbs, there is also an ergative doors did slammy. In the imperative, infin. -y only appears with a negative dont sobby! The optional use of the -y ending is an advantage in dialect poetry for metre or rhyme Vor thine wull peck, an mine wull grubby rhyming with snubby And this ending probably accounts for a phonetic peculiarity of South-west dialects, namely the apocope of to arguy the former dialect pronunciation of to argue, to carry and to empty, reduced to to arg, to car and to empt. In the grammatical part of his Glossary of the Dorset Dialect, Barnes insists on the aspectual connection between do and infin. y Belonging to this use of the free infinitive y-ended verbs, is another kindred one, the showing of a repetition or habit of doing as How the dog do jumpy, i-e keep jumping. The child do like to whippy, amuse himself with whipping.

Idle chap, hell do nothen but vishy, spend his time in fishing, if you do leвve en alwone.

He do markety, he usually attends market. Barnes also quotes a work by Jennings in which this South-west feature was also described Another peculiarity is that of attaching to many of the common verbs in the infinitive mode as well as to some other parts of different conjugations, the letter -y. Thus it is very common to say I cant sewy, I cant nursy, he cant reapy, he cant sawy, as well as to sewy, to nursy, to reapy, to sawy, etc but never, I think, without an auxiliary verb, or the sign of the infinitive to. Barnes claimed, too, that the collocation of infin. y and the DO was unthinkable We may say, Can ye zewy? but never Wull ye zewy up theдse zкam? Wull ye zew up theдse zкam would be good Dorset.

Elworthy also mentions the opposition heard in Somerset between I do dig the garden and Every day, I do diggy for three hours quoted by Jespersen and by Rogers. Concerning the so-called free infinitive, Wiltshire-born Rogers comments that it is little heard now, but was common in the last century, which tallies with the lack of examples in the SED. This point is also confirmed by Itialainen Rogers is quite surprised to read of a science-fiction play BBC, 15 March 1978 entitled Stargazy in Zummerland, describing a future world in which the population was divided between industrial and agricultural workers, the latter probably using some form of south- western speech, following a time-honoured stage tradition already perceptible in King Lear disguised as a rustic, Edgar speaks broad Somerset. To sum up, after to, do auxiliary, or a modal, the formula of the free infinitive is intr. V infin. -y 0 where intr. implies genuine intransitives, ODVs and even ergatives.

As a dialect-marker, -y is now on the wane, being gradually replaced by 0 due to contact with Standard English. 1.2 Of DO The other typical feature of south-western dialects is not mentioned by Wakelin, although it stands out much more clearly in the SED data. This is the optional use of o ov occasionally on between a transitive verb and its DO. Here are some of the many examples.

Stripping the feathers off a dead chicken Orton and Wakelin is called pickin pluckin ov it Brk-loc. 3 trippin o en it D-loc. 6 pickin o en Do-loc. 3 pluckin g on en - W-loc. 9 Sx-loc. 2 . Catching fish, especially trout, with ones hand Orton and Wakelin is called ticklin o ov em them So-loc. 13 W-loc. 2, 8 D-loc. 2, 7, 8 Do-loc. 2-5 Ha-loc. 4 gropin o ov em D-loc. 4, 6 ticklin on em W-loc. 3, 4 Ha-loc. 6 Sx-loc. 3 tickle o em Do-loc. l note the absence of -in g. The confusion between of and on is frequent in dialects, but although on may occur where of is expected, the reverse is impossible.

The occasional use of on instead of of is therefore unimportant.

What really matters is the occurrence of of, o or ov between a transitive verb and the DO. The presence of the -in g ending should also attract our attention it occurs in all the examples except tickle o em, which is exceptional since, when the SED informants used an infinitive in their answers, their syntax was usually identical with that of Standard English, ie without of occurring before the DO glad to see you, he wants to hide it Orton and Wakelin. Following Jespersen, Lyons makes a distinction between real transitives hit you action goal and verbs which are only syntactically transitives hear you goal action. It is a pity that the way informants were asked questions for the SED What do we do with them Our eyes ears does not enable us to treat the transitive verbs see Orton and Wakelin and hear Orton and Wakelin other than as ODVs. The use of of as an operator between a transitive verb and its DO was strangely enough never described by Barnes, and is casually dismissed as an otiose of by the authors of the SED, even though nothing can really be otiose in any language system.

Rogers points out that Much more widely found formerly, it is now confined to sentences where the pronouns en, it and em are the objects.

This is obvious in the SED materials, as, incidentally, it is in these lines by Barnes To work all day a-meдken haя Or pitchen ot. Nevertheless, even if his usage is in conformity with present syntax, it is important to add that, when Barnes was alive, o ov could precede any DO a-meдken ov haя would equally have been possible. What should also be noted in his poetry is the extremely rare occurrence of o ov after a transitive verb with no -en -ing ending, which, as we just saw, is still very rare in modern speech Zoo I dont mind o leдven it to-morrow.

Zoo I dont mind o leдven ot to-morrow.

The second line shows a twofold occurrence of o after two transitive verbs, one with and one without -en. This -en ending can be a marker of a verbal noun, a gerund or a present participle as part of a progressive aspect form or on its own, and o may follow in each case. VERBAL NOUN My own a-decken ov my own my own way of dressing my darling. This is the same usage as in Standard English he doesnt like my driving of his car. GERUND That wer vor hetten on that was for hitting him little chance O catchen on. I be never the better vor zee-en o you. The addition of o to a gerund is optional Vor grinden any corn vor bread is similar to Standard English.

PROGRESSIVE ASPECT As I wer readen ov a stwone about a headstone. Rogers gives two examples of the progressive aspect I be stackin on em up. I were a-peeling of the potatoes with a different spelling. PRESENT PARTICIPLE ON ITS OWN To vind me stannen in the cwold, A-keepen up o Chrismas.

After any present participle, the use of o is also optional Where vok be out a-meдken haя. The general formula is thus trans. V V o 0 which can also be read as MV main verb trans.

V o 0 DO. Here, o stands for o the most common form, ov and even on. In modem usage, the DO, which could be a noun or noun phrase in Barness day and age, appears from the SED materials to be restricted to personal pronouns. For modern dialects, the formula thus reads MV trans. V o 0 pers. pron. The o is here a transitivity operator which, exactly like an accusative ending in a language with case declensions, disappears in the passive.

Consequently, the phenomenon under discussion here has to be distinguished from that of prepositional verbs, which require the retention of the preposition in the passive We have thought of all the possible snags. All the possible snags have been thought of. The use of o as a transitivity operator in active declaratives is also optional, which represents another basic difference from prepositional verbs. Exactly the same opposition, interestingly enough, applies in south-western dialects also 1 He is a- eдten o ceдkes ? What is he a- eдten? 2 He is a- dreдmen oceдkes What is he a- dreдmen ov? What remains a preposition in 1 and 2 works as the link between a transitive verb and its DO. The compulsory deletion of the operator o in questions relating to the DO demonstrates the importance here of the word order V o DO , as does also the similar triggering of deletion by passives.

Though now used in a more restricted way, ie before personal pronouns only, this syntactic feature is better preserved in the modern dialects than the -y ending of intransitive verbs, but, in so far as it is only optional, it is easy to detect the growing influence of Standard English. 2. Diachrony as an explanation of these features.

Although the above description has not been purely synchronic, since it cites differences in usage between the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, it is actually only by looking back at even earlier stages of the language that we can gain any clear insights into why the dialects have developed in this way. Both Widen and Wakelin remind us that the originally strictly morphological -y ending has since developed into a syntactic feature.

It is a survival of the Middle English infinitive ending -ie n, traceable to the -ian suffix of the second class of Old English weak verbs OE milcian ME milkie n south-west dial. milky. Subsequently, -y has been analogically extended to other types of verbs in south-west dialects under certain syntactic conditions in the absence of any DO, through sheer impossibility intransitive verb or due to the speakers choice ODV or ergative. The only survival of medieval usage is the impossibility of a verb form like milky being anything other than an infinitive.

Note that this cannot be labelled an archaism, since the standard language has never demonstrated this particular syntactic specialization. So far no explanation seems to have been advanced for the origin of otiose of, and yet it is fairly easy to resort to diachrony in order to explain this syntactic feature.

Let us start, however, with contemporary Standard English 3 They sat, singing a shanty. present participle on its own 4 They are singing a shanty. progressive aspect 5 I like them their singing a shanty. gerund 6 I like their singing of a shanty. verbal noun Here 5 and 6 are considered nominalizations from a synchronic point of view. As far as 4 is concerned, Barnes reminds his readers that the OE nominalization ic waes on hunlunge I was in the process of hunting, cf Aelfrics Colloquim fui in. venatione is the source of modern was hunting, via an older structure I was a- hunting which is preserved in many dialects, the optional verbal prefix a- being what remains of the preposition on. The nominal nature of V-ing is still well established in the verbal noun with the use of of in particular, and it is here that the starting-point of a chain reaction lies. Hybrid structures verbal nouns gerunds appeared as early as Middle English, as in bi puttyng forth of whom so it were 1386 Petition of Mercers and similar gerunds followed by of were still a possibility in Elizabethan English Rend not my heart for naming of my Christ Marlowe, Doctor Faustus together with verbal nouns not followed by any of as the putting him clean out of his humour B. Jonson, Every Man out of his Humour. Having been extended from the verbal noun to the gerund, of also eventually spread to the progressive aspect in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, at a time when the V-ing of sequence became very widespread in Standard English Are you crossing of yourself? Marlowe, Doctor Faustus. He is hearing of a cause Shakespeare, Measure for Measure. She is taking of her last farewell Bunyan, The Pilgims Progress. However, what is definitely an archaism in Standard English has been preserved in south-western dialects, which have gone even further and also added an optional o to the present participle used on its own ie other than in the progressive aspect. Moreover, there is even a tendency, as we have seen, to use o after a transitive verb without the -en -ing ending.

This tendency, which remains slight, represents the ultimate point of a chain reaction that can be portrayed as follows Use of o in the environment following A B C D verbal noun gerund be V-ing pres. part. V V-ing A evolution from Middle English to the Renaissance B evolution typical of English in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries C evolution typical of south-western dialects D marginal tendency in south-western dialects.

The dialect usage is more than a mere syntactic archaism not only have the south-western dialects preserved stages A and B they are also highly innovative in stages C and D . 18, p.218 4. Vocabulary.

Devonshire Dev Somersetshire Som Wiltshire Wil Cornwall Cor A Abroad - adj растерянный, незнающий, как поступить попавший впросак, совершивший ошибку разваренный, расплавленный о пище The potatoes are abroad.

The sugar is gone abroad. Addle, Udall, Odal Dev - v зарабатывать, сберегать, откладывать, экономить о растениях расти, расцветать gu. oрla, возвр. oрlask - приобретать имущество, oрal - имущество Ail Wil, Dev - n ость колоса Aller Dev - n нарыв, карбункул тяжелый ожог Suke died acause her aller wanted letting.

Answer Som - v выносить, переносить те или иные условия, определенные события выжить That there poplar ont never answer out of doors, tll be a ratted in no time to реагировать на что-либо, поддаваться воздействию чего-либо Clay land easily answers to bones.

Any повсеместно - adj, adv, pron any bit like - хороший, сносный, приличный о здоровье, погоде, поведении Ill come and see thee tomorrow if its only any-bit-like any more than - только если бы Hes sure to come any more than he might be a bit late. I should be sure to go to school any more than Ive not got a gownd to my back. Attle Cor - n мусор, отбросы B Bach, Batch, Bage Som - n река, ручей долина, через которую протекает ручей овраг насыпь или холм, находящиеся вблизи реки Bad Wil - n внешняя земная оболочка ореха Badge Wil - v заниматься перепродажей зерна, овощей и фруктов Balch Dev, Cor - n небольшая веревка, кушак Bam Cor - n шутка, проделка, номер Its nowt but a bam. Wil, Som - n портянка, грубая материя, оборачиваемая вокруг ноги Ban Som - v проклинать ругаться Bannock Wil, Som, Dev - n блин лепешка из овсянной или ячменной муки Barge Dev - n боров v ругать, оскорблять Barney Som - n ссора, перебранка чепуха ошибка плохо выполненная работа, халтура Barton Wil, Dev, Som, Cor - n крестьянский двор подсобные помещения в задней части крестьянского двора крестьянский дом Barvel Cor - n короткий кожаный передник, надеваемый при мытье полов кожаный передник рыбаков Bate Som, Dev - n плохое настроение, раздраженное состояние v ссориться, ругаться Beagle, Bogle Dev - n пугало привидение гротескно одетый человек, ряженый Beet, Boot Cor - v чинить, ремонтировать, помогать удовлетворять Besgan, Biscan, Vescan Cor - n кожаный напальчник матерчатая повязка Big Som, Cor - adj дружественный, близкий Smith and Brown are very big v строить v с up утверждать, поддержать в мнении быть преданным, верным человеку или идее Bogzom Dev - adj ярко-красный румяный Ya ha made ma chucks bugzom.

Bribe Wil - v приставать, издеваться ругать, пилить She terrible bribed I. Brindled Som - ppl adj пестрый, полосатый Bruick-boil Dev - v вянуть становиться сухой о погоде Bunt Som, Dev, Cor - n сито v просеивать муку Wil - n вязанка хвороста Buss, boss Wil, Dev, Cor - n теленок But Som - n пики в картах Cor - v вывихнуть сустав Ive butted my thumb.

C Cab Som, Dev, Cor - n липкая масса, что-либо грязное, мокрое или липкое adj cabby v воровать Cad Som - n самые мелкие и молодые особи поросят, телят и др. pl мелкий картофель падаль, гнилое мясо Call Som - v думать, считать Cam Cor - n глинистый сланец adj изогнутый упрямый Casar Dev, Cor - n сито v просеивать Caw Dev - v дышать с трудом n дурак Cawk Som - v пороть, бить Chack Dev, Cor - adj ppl chackt, chacking - испытывающий жажду голодный Cheap Som - adj фразеол. be cheap on - вполне заслуживающий чего-либо Chill Dev, Som - v немного подогреть жидкость chilled water - теплая вода Chilver Wil, Som - n ягненок Chissom Wil, Som, Dev - n отросток, побег растения v давать отростки, побеги Chuck Som, Dev - n нижняя часть лица, шея, глотка Clib Dev, Cor - v прилипать увлажнять, смачивать Clivan, Clevant, Callyvan, Vant Som - n ловушка для птиц You be like a wren in a clivan.

Clock Som - n жук Coath Som, Dev - n болезнь печени у овец v падать в обморок Cob Cor - n плохо исполненная работа Cold Som, Dev, Wil, Cor - to catch cold - попасть в беду to cast the cold of a thing - избавиться от последствий какого-либо зла или несчастья cold cheer - нужда cold hand - хороший образец культуры пшеницы или ячменя cold lady - пудинг из муки и жира Colley Wil - n сажа, грязь свежее мясо Colt Wil - n оползень v оползать о почве Cooch Coochy Dev, Cor - n левша adj неуклюжий Cook Som - v убить притаиться, спрятаться Coose Dev, Cor - v сплетничать слоняться Cotton Som, Dev - v бить, пороть Cowerd Wil, Som - adj парной о молоке Crib Dev, Cor - n еда v воровать Crowd Som, Dev, Cor - n скрипка D Dain Wil - adj имеющий плохой запах Dare Wil, Som, Dev - v отпрянуть в ужасе, бояться прятаться пугать Dawk Wil, Som - n дыра v протыкать моросить о дожде adj беспомощный v небрежно и неопрятно одеваться Denshire Wil, Dev - v срезать дерн и сжигать его после просушки Dey Wil - n женщина, занятая в молочном хозяйстве Dool Dev - n пограничный столбик на поле ворота в игре гвоздь, шип для скрепления половых досок большой кусок v ударять плоской поверхностью с off отмечать, устанавливать границу, межу Downy Som - adj хитрый, ловкий в плохом настроении, подавленный Drill Dev - v тратить время попусту замедлять, задерживать заманить заставить что-либо делать с помощью лести Dupl do up Wil - v открывать закрывать, запирать быстро идти Dwall Som, Dev - v бредить, говорить бессвязно n легкий сон Dwam Dev - n обморок приступ болезни E Ear Wil, Som - v пахать землю Easse Wil, Som - n земляной червь Elt, Hilt Som, Dev - n молодая свинья Eve Wil, Dev, Cor - v потеть, выделять влагу таять Evil Dev, Cor - n вилы для навоза вилы v сгребать вилами F Fadge Som, Dev, Cor - v подходить, быть подходящим друг для друга They dont fadge well together соглашаться преуспевать делать работу кое-как, спустя рукава идти с трудом, медленно n вид пирога связка, сноп определенное количество чего-либо Fady Dev, Cor - adj сырой Fage Som - v льстить, подлизываться обманывать Fain Dev - v просить мира в детских играх Fain it! Сдаюсь! adj счачтливый, довольный adv охотно n о мукй плохого качества Farewell Wil, Som, Dev - n привкус The butter leaves a clammy farewell in the mouth. Favour Dev - v помогать, облегчать Fawny Dev - n кольцо Feat Wil, Dev - adj довольно большой по размеру или количеству значительный опрятный красивый Feer Wil - v пройти первую борозду при пахоте n борозда Fenny, Vinny Wil - adj покрытый плесенью Fitten Wil, Som - n уловка, предлог каприз, причуда Flag Wil, Dev - n лист растения Flaw Dev, Cor - n внезапный порыв ветра Flawn, Flome Dev - n оладья, блин деревенский праздник, на котором подают блины блюдо из взбитых яиц и молока Fleck Som - n пятно царапина на коже дефект на одежде Flue Wil - adj нежный, слабый, болезненный худой мелкий о сосуде широкий, обширный Fly Som - adj хитрый Fogger Wil - n помощник человек, ухаживающий за скотом, конюх Framp Som, Dev - adj в словосочетаниях framp-shaken framp-shapen искривленный, набекрень Frape Som, Dev, Cor - v завязывать ругать Fur Som, Dev, Cor - v бросать, кидать дергать за уши перебиваться, сводить концы с концами Ive nobbut a shillin to fur tweek on with. Furcom, Fircom Wil, Som - n суть, существо, основа какого-либо дела pl все обстоятельства дела Ill tell ee all the fircoms ont. G Gaff Dev - n крючок дешевый театр выступление на деревенской ярмарке хозяин, начальник Gale Som, Dev, Cor - n периодическая плата за что-либо, рента Glam Dev - n рана Gout Cor , Gutt - n капля сгусток чего-либо adj Gouty - сучковатый, имеющий неровности Graft Cor, Dev, Som, Wil - n овраг, углубление в земле случайная работа Great Dev - adj большой по размеру The glass is great enough.

His brother is great and strong дружественный, в хороших отношениях My brother is very great with the lad great folks - большие друзья adv очень great foul, great likely, great mich, a great high wall сдельная работа great-work work by the great H Hackle Wil - n одежда шерсть животных оперение птиц v хорошо сидеть об одежде Hag g Som, Wil, Dev - v подстрекать, провоцировать дразнить n лес, роща крутая скала Halsen Som, Dev, Cor - v предсказывать предрекать неприятности Hange Som, Dev, Cor - n внутренности печень, легкие, сердце какого-либо животного Harl e Som - v тащить, тянуть сгребать медленно двигаться Hathe Som - n плотная оболочка, покров be in a hathe - быть покрытым сыпью оспы или другой болезни Hathern Som - n перила I first catched a hold othe hathern so I jissy saved I. Havage Dev, Cor - n происхождение, родословная Hearst Som, Dev - n молодая самка оленя Hile Som - n несколько стогов, сложенных вместе v о скоте бодать препятствовать Hint Wil - v собирать, складывать Som - v вянуть, сохнуть Ho, Hoe, How Som - v скучать о ком-либо заботиться, проявлять внимание к кому-либо, ухаживать за кем- либо Hocksy Wil, тж. OXY - adj в виде жидкой, липкой грязи Hog Dev - n куча картофеля или других овощей, укрытая соломой и землей от мороза и дождя бурт Hoggan Cor - n пирог со свининой тж. Fuggan, Hobban плод шиповника Holiday Cor , Holliday - n место, оставленное нетронутым при стирании пыли с чего-либо, при покраске Hope Som - n впадина между холмами долина, через которую протекает ручей, но тж. холм бухта Horry, Howery Som, Dev - adj грязный, отвратительный заплесневелый Hound Som - n pl выступы на нижней части мачты Hovel, Hobble Som - v спасать корабль, попавший в беду помогать кораблю стать на якорь или выйти из гавани n удача He got a good hovel.

How Dev - n небольшой холмик Hug Som - n чесотка v подстрекать, заставлять что-либо сделать Huss Som - v натравить собаку на кого-либо I Ignorant Wil, Som - adj невоспитанный I thought it would look so ignorant to stop you. Inkle Dev, Cor - n шнурок из грубой пряжи для закрепления фартука, ботинок J Jack Cor, Dev, Som, Wil - v оставить, бросить работу, уйти Jail Cor - v быстро идти Jimmy Som - adj опрятный, аккуратный проворный хорошо сделанный K Keech Wil, Som - v затвердевать о расплавленном жире, воске замерзать о воде n большой кусок грязи, жира Keeve Som, Dev, Cor - n большой таз Keffel Som - n лошадь обычно старая предмет низкого качества ленивый, глупый человек Kemps Som - n короткие грубые ворсински или волоски на шерсти Kern Dev, Som, Cor - v сворачиваться о молоке медленно вариться Kibbit Dev, Cor - n чан, ведро Kindle Som - v о небольших животных, особенно кроликах производить потомство L Lag Cor - v обрызгать грязью Lammock Cor - n негодяй Lart Som, Dev - n пол особенно в верхней комнате или на чердаке полка Lashing Dev, Cor - n pl тж. Lashings and Lavins большое количество чего-либо adj большой, огромный Law Som, Dev - n холм насыпь груда камней v складывать в стога Leap Som - n большая корзина Lear Dev, Som - adj пустой Let, Lat Wil, Som, Cor - v мешать, останавливать, не пускать перестать n задержка, препятствие without let or hindrance Letch Som, Dev - n сильное желание причуда Letting - adj о погоде дождливый Lewth Wil, Som, Dev - n убежище место, защищенное от ветра Lewze, Looze Som, Dev - n свиной хлев Lich Som, Dev - n труп Lidden Som, Dev, Cor - n песня монотонный припев Lide Wil, Cor - n месяц март Lig, Liggan Cor - n вид водорослей удобрение из водорослей или сухих листьев Linch Dev, Cor - v бить Lissom Wil, Som, Dev - n тонкая полоска чего-либо слой Litten Wil, Som - n кладбище Lock Som, Dev, Cor - n определенное количество чего-либо, обычно небольшое Lodden Cor - n лужа, небольшой пруд Log Dev, Cor - v колебаться, качаться Loker Dev - n рубанок Lourve, Luffer, Loover Som - n дымоход, печная труба Low Dev - n пламя свет M Mang Wil, Som, Dev - v смешивать Maskel Som, Dev - n зеленая гусеница небольшое сморщенное яблоко Masker Dev - v потерять сознание He got maskered ithe snow-storm othe hill лишаться рассудка душить, задохнуться He coughs sometimes like as if hed masker гнить ржаветь Maxim Som, Dev, Cor - n выдумка, способ действия Ive tried every sort o maxims wi un, but I cant make-n grow pl проказы, шутки v играть I zeed min maximin about in the fiel. Magzard Som, Dev, Cor - n сорт мелкой черной вишни Meech Som, Dev - v пробираться украдкой about пропустить занятия, не явиться на работу лодырничать попрошайничать, собирать милостыню воровать Meet Dev - adj должный, нужный, правильный Ment Som - v быть похожим на кого-либо He ments his father n сходство Mickle Wil - adj, adv много Mickled Dev - ppl mickled with cold - окоченевший от холода задыхающийся, пересохший от жары рот, глотка Mock Som, Dev, Cor - n пень дерева с корнями, большая палка adv Mocking - попеременно, поочередно I think, sir, that we had better put in them plants mocking v быть расположенным вперемешку The black squares on a chess-board mock each other.

Mog g Som - v обидеться хандрить отказываться от пищи Mogue Som - v обманывать насмехаться Mole Som - n темя затылок Moot Som, Dev, Cor - n пень v двигать, передвигать намекать на что-либо Mop Wil - n ярмарка, на которой нанимались слуги и сельскохозяйственные рабочие увеселительное сборище More Wil, Som, Dev, Cor - n корень дерева или растения побег растение, цветок, кустарник v приживаться о растении выкорчевывать, вырывать с корнем Mort Som, Dev, Cor - n свиной жир, шпиг Mugget Som, Dev, Cor - n складка на рубашке Mungy Cor - adj о погоде душный и сырой о фруктах перезрелый Muryan Cor - n муравей N Nammet Wil, Som, Dev, Cor - n завтрак особенно в поле еда Naty Dev, Cor - adj о мясе мягкий, неволокнистый, разваристый Neck Som, Dev, Cor - n последний стог хлеба в поле Neive Dev - n кулак, сжатая рука Nim Som, Dev - v схватить стянуть, своровать Nitch Wil, Som, Dev - n вязанка сена, соломы, дров семья банда Noil Som - n короткая шерсть, оставшаяся после стрижки отходы шерсти, шелка Nool Cor - v бить Nooling - n побои Northering Som, Dev - ppl, adj несвязный о речи не в своем уме, помешанный Not Som, Dev - adj гладкий, в хорошем состоянии о поле Notted - подстриженный O Oast, East Dev - n печь для сушки хмеля сырная масса до ее удаления из сыворотки Oaze, Hose N-W Dev - n pl вывески Oddy, Hoddy Wil - adj сильный, энергичный, живой Old Dev - adj большой, сильный, обильный, великолепный auld to do a great fass, auld wark - то же old doing great sport, great feasting, an uncommon display of hospitality a pratty old tap a great speed умный, серьезный талантливый ребенок He looked very old about it. The child was little and old хитрый, изворотливый Hes too old for you. He looked very old at me he looked very knowingly distrustfully, angrily, askance at me. Ollet, Elet Wil - n сухие и гнилые ветки, используемые как топливо Orch, Horch Dev - v бодать Ore Dev, Cor - n морская водоросль водоросль, выброшенная на берег приливом Orrel Cor - n высокое крыльцо, веранда P Paise Wil, Som, Dev, Cor - v взвешивать особенно на руке подымать рычагом взламывать Pame Som, Dev - n фланелевая пеленка одеяло, в которое заворачивают ребенка перед крещением Pancheon Cor - n большое глиняное ведро особенно для молока Peach Cor - v заманивать с away Peacher - n приманка Ped Dev, Cor - n кляча, лягушка Pelf Dev, Cor - n мусор, отходы мех, руно деньги вульг.

Peller Cor - n колдун знахарь Pilch Som, Cor - n треугольная пеленка Pind, Pindy Som - adj плесневый, несвежий Play Som - v варить, кипятить Didth pot play when you come? не работать in - начинать up - ругать Plim Som, Dev - v распухнуть, увеличиваться в объеме, вздуваться adj полный Plum Wil, Dev, Cor - v надуваться подыматься о тесте adj о погоде мягкий Polt Wil - v сбивать фрукты с дерева длинным шестом n удар Pomple Som - adj надежный, заслуживающий доверия о человеке Pomster, Pompsy, Pounster Som, Dev, Cor - n знахарь v заниматься врачеванием без достаточных медицинских знаний Dont pomster thyself.

Pook Wil, Som, Cor - n стог, кипа, куча v тянуть ощипать курицу Prill Som, Dev, Cor - v скиснуть, свернуться о молоке, испортиться о характере, настроении человека a-prilled, a-pirled Punish Dev - v причинять боль, страдание ранить переносить боль His leg did punish him so. I punished so in the new boots съесть, проглотить Pur Som - n баран Put Som, Cor, Dev, Wil - v посылать заставлять что-либо делать put in - распрягать переносить, терпеть страдания выполнять что-либо put out - обнаруживать, обнародовать put to till - допрашивать мучить запрягать закрывать v толкать Q Quank Wil - v превозмочь успокоить adj тихий, спокойный Quar Som, Dev - v о молоке свернуться задыхаться Quarrel Dev, Som, Cor, Wil - n оконное стекло Queachy Som - adj болотистый, сырой Quilkin Dev, Cor - n лягушка, жаба R Rag Dev - n иней туман моросящий дождь Rake Cor - n путь, маршрут, направление путешествие груз, который можно перенести за один раз большое количество Rally Som, Dev - v быстро идти, спешить будить, подымать ото сна ругать, громко говорить Rames Wil, Som, Dev, Cor - n pl скелет, каркас засохшая ботва картофеля и других растений Rane Som, Dev - n трещина напрмер, в дереве рваное место одежды Rap Som, Dev, Cor, Wil - v менять, выменивать на что-либо n сделка Rare Som, Dev, Cor - adj ранний об овощах, фруктах готовый, приготовленный Rawn Wil, Som, Dev, Cor - v жадно есть делать борозду оставлять шрам rawned - adj обезображенный Ray Som, Dev - v украшать одевать раздевать загрязнять Read Som - n четвертый желудок у жвачных животных желудок животного v советовать предупреждать объяснять предполагать Ream Dev, Cor - n сливки Rear Wil, Dev, Cor - adj о мясе, яйцах полусырой, недоваренный, недожаренный Ah likes my bacon a bit rare о фруктах неспелый о погоде сырой Rear-mouse Wil, Som, Dev - n летучая мышь Reck Som - n небольшая корзина Reese Cor - v о перезрелом зерне опадать Ridder, Riddle Wil, Som, Cor - n сито для зерна v сеять зерно Rind, Render, Rander, Rainder Dev - v перетопить масло или сало Roak e Wil - n туман пар мелкий дождь Rode Cor - n умение, сноровка, сообразительность Rose, Rouse Som, Dev, Cor - v оползать, опускаться о земле падать n громкое падение оползень Rouse Wil, Dev - v опрыскивать Rum Dev - adj отличный превосходный adv сильно, вовсю, в превосходной степени S Sam Wil, Som, Dev, Cor - n, adj неготовый или плохо приготовленный о пище, плохо подогретый о пище Sammy Wil - adj клеклый мокрый пропитанный водой мягкий Sang, Songle Dev, Cor - n пригоршня зерна небольшой сноп Sawk Dev, Cor - n застенчивый, нервный человек Sax Som, Dev, Cor - n ноги v разрезать Scat, Scad Dev, Cor - n внезапный кратковременный ливень период работы погоды a scat of fine weather Scorse Som, Dev, Cor - v выменять, выторговать что-либо Scovy Som, Dev, Cor - adj неодинаковый по цвету, пестрый Scoy Cor - adj худой, плохой маленький, незначительный Scraw Cor - v просушивать рыбу на солнце и воздухе жарить рыбу над огнем Scrint Com, Dev - v гореть спалить поджигать Scug Cor - n белка Seam Som, Dev, Cor - n груз, поклажа о лошади Sean Dev, Cor - n большая сеть для ловли рыбы Shape Wil - v отправиться, уйти We mun shape our way home пытаться что-либо сделать, осуществить Shippen Som, Dev, Cor - n стойло для скота Shut Wil, Som - v избавляться от чего-либо тратить деньги без меры, транжирить He shut his addings in drink.

Sim, Zim Wil - n резкий запах особенно от горящей веревки или кости Skeel Wil - n деревянное ведро таз Skeeling, Sheal, Shealing Wil - n сарай Skit Cor - n насмешка намек скандал шутка анекдот v насмехаться над кем-либо строить козни сердиться ругаться Slade Som, Cor - n долина углубление небольшой ручей Slock Som, Dev, Cor - v заманивать, соблазнять n болото, трясина впадина между холмами Sloke Dev - v прятаться Smarry Dev - n женская кофта Smoot, Smeut, Smoat, Smot, Smout, Smut, Smute Som, Dev - n Smeuse v быть стеснительным умирать, околевать о животных Sober Dev - adj серьезный, спокойный бедный слабый, больной Sowl Dev - v трепать за уши грубо обращаться бить Speer Som - v искать спрашивать тж. at следить, наблюдать тж. с about, into, out сделать предложение о браке Spell Som - n рассказ, история v рассказывать ругать Spend Cor - n дерн, трава Spur Cor - n период времени a pure spur, a bra spur - долгое время She has been gon a bra spur. Stean Wil, Som, Dev, Cor - n глиняный сосуд Steg Wil - n гусак индюк петух неуклюжий человек Stem Wil, Som, Dev, Cor - n период времени период работы смена Stout Wil, Som - n овод Strad Som, Dev - n pl куски кожи, обвязываемые вокруг ноги, гетры Stub Som, Dev - n большая сумма денег большой запас чего-либо He lefn a good stub v разорять, доводить до бедности Sull Wil, Som, Dev - n плуг Summer, Simmer Wil, Som, Dev - n горизонтальный, поперечный, брус подпорка Summering Som, Dev - n ежегодный праздник Survey Som, Dev, Cor - n аукцион Swale Dev - v жечь T Tallet Wil, Som, Dev, Cor - n помещение для хранения сена на чердаке или над стойлом чердак Tave Som - v беситься, бушевать, бороться выполнять тяжелую работу спешить быстро идти n трудность в том числе материальная Tease Som - v разматывать Teel Wil, Cor, Som, Dev - v прислонять к чему-либо открывать tile a gate не отступать от своего решения упрямо делать что-либо Teen Cor, Dev - n закрывать Tell Som, Cor - v считать, рассчитывать Did you tell the clock when it stuck? платить обычно с out, down They must tell down good five pounds приговорить к какому-либо наказанию The judge told a man for hanging.

Temporary, Tempery, Tempory Som - adj слабый, хрупкий, непрочный My clock - warks are gettin rather temporary.

Yere a temporary creature.

Temse Wil - n сито v сеять, просеивать Tetch Som, Dev - n походка привычка Tetchy - adj раздражительный о погоде переменчивый Tewly Wil - adj слабый, нежный, болехненный, хрупкий поправляющийся, выздоравливающий о больном Thirl Som, Dev, Cor - adj худой, тощий голодный о колосе пустой, без зерен Throw Som - v родить, произвести Thick marell drow a good colt быть против чего-либо спорить, не соглашаться сердиться, раздражать Tie Som, Cor - n пуховая перина кровать Tift Dev - v одевать, наряжать Till, Toll Dev, Cor - v вручать, давать достигнуть чего-либо Tine Wil, Som, Dev - v закрывать огораживать Trant Som - v переносить тяжести Trig Wil, Som, Dev, Cor - v укрепить, закрепить, заклинить, подпереть Truff Som, Dev, Cor - n форель Twire Wil - v пристально смотреть U Unco Wil - n pl известия, новости Ure Cor - n грязь, глина V Vair Som, Dev, Cor - n ласка животное Vlare Som - n дефект, изъян Vreach Som, Dev - adj старательно, тщательно W Wairsh Dev - adj пресный, несоленый безвкусный сырой Wake Wil - n прорубь на озере или на реке деревенский праздник pl Wall Som - v кипеть Wang Som - n часть плуга v гнуться, прогибаться от груза падать в обморок Want Som, Cor, Wil, Dev - n крот Warth Som - n луг особенно близкий к ручью берег Wat Cor - n заяц Weel, Weil Cor - n корзина из прутьев для ловли рыбы Wem, Wen Cor - n пятно, изъян дыра на одежде Went, Vent, Want, Wint Som, Cor, Dev - n дорога, колея пересекающиеся дороги v идти скиснуть о жидкостях, особенно о молоке Win Som, Dev - v сушить злаки, сено, торф и т.д на воздухе n жатва Wink Cor - n пивной магазин Wride Cor, Som, Dev - v о растениях давать несколько отростков от одного корня распространяться расширяться n куст Y Yote Wil, Som - v лить, выливать, поливать глотать, жадно пить Conclusions. 1. In considering the history and development of the English language we may maintain that a regional variety of English is a complex of regional standard norms and dialects.

We must admit, however, that rural dialects, in the conservative sense of the word, are almost certainly dying out e.g. the Cornish language increasing geographical mobility, centralization and urbanization are undoubtedly factors in this decline.

Owing to specific ways of development, every regional variety is characterized by a set of features identical to a variety of English.

In the United Kingdom RP is a unique national standard.

About seventy or so years ago along with regional types dozen upon dozens of rural dialects co-existed side by side in the country.

The situation has greatly changed since and specifically after the Second World War. Dialects survive for the most part in rural districts and England is a highly urbanized country and has very few areas that are remote or difficult to access.

Much of the regional variation in pronunciation currently to be found in the country is gradually being lost. On the other hand, it is important to note that urban dialects are undergoing developments of a new type, and the phonetic differences between urban varieties seem to be on the increase.

The United Kingdom is particular about accents, in the sense that here attitudes and prejudices many people hold towards non-standard pronunciations are still very strong.

Therefore RP has always been and still is the prestigious national standard pronunciation, the so-called implicitly accepted social standard.

In spite of the fact that RP speakers form a very small percentage of the British population, it has the highest status of British English pronunciation and is genuinely regionless. 2. The comparative analysis of the phonetic system of the regional varieties of English pronunciation shows the differences in the pronunciation in the system of consonant and vowel phonemes. 3. The comparative analysis of the grammar presents the difference between the standard language and the dialects of the South-West of England.

In conclusion we may say that the problems of the regional dialects its phonetic, grammar and lexical systems open up wide vistas for further investigations.

B I B L I O G R A P H Y. 1. Бродович О.И. Диалектная вариативность английского языка аспекты теории.

Л 1988 2. Маковский М.М. Английская диалектология.

Современные английские диалекты Великобритании.

М 1980 3. Шахбагова Д.А. Фонетические особенности произносительных вариантов английского языка.

М 1982 4. Allen B.H Linn M.D. Dialect and language variation, Orlando, 1986 5. Brook G.L. English Dialects, Oxford Un. Press, 1963 6. Brook G.L. Varieties of English, Lnd, 1977 7. Cheshire J. Variation in an English dialect. A sociolinguistic study, Cambridge Un. Press, 1982 8. Crystal D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, Cambridge, 1995 9. Encyclopedia Britannica CD 2000 Deluxe Edition 10. Gimson A.C. An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English, Lnd, 1981 11. Hughes and Trudgill, English accents and dialects An introduction to social and regional varieties of British English, Lnd, 1979 12. Malmstrom J Weaver C Transgrammar.

English structure, style and dialects, Brighton, 1973 13. Shaw G.B. Pygmalion, NY, 1994 14. Sheerin S Seath J White G. Spotlight on Britain, Oxford, 1990 15. Shopen T Williams J.M. Standards and dialects in English, Cambridge, 1980 16. Trudgill P. On dialect Social and Geographical Perspectives, NY and Lnd, 1984 17. Trudgill P. Dialects in Contact, Oxford, 1986 18. Trudgill P Chambers J.K. Dialects of English Studies in grammatical variation. Longman, 9 19. Wakelin M.F. Discovering English Dialects, Shire Publications LTD, 1978 Dictionaries 20. Hornby A.S. Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English, Oxford Un. Press, 1996 Audio tapes analysed 21. Accents, Glossa Melit, M 2000 TV program analysed 22. Holiday in the Southwest, the channel Discovery , 2000 Приложение 3. The Southwest.

The principal industries here are farming and tourism.

There are some very big farms, but most are small family farms with a mixture of cows, sheep and crops.

The main emphasis is on dairy products - milk and butter.

On Exmoor and Dartmoor, two areas of higher land, conditions are ideal for rearing sheep and beef-cattle. Industry is centered on three large ports Bristol in the north, and Portsmouth and Southampton in the south-east. In Bristol, aircraft are designed and built.

In Portsmouth and Southampton, the main industries are shipbuilding and oil-refining. 1. Holiday time in the West Country.

The countries of Devon, Cornwall and Somerset are often called the West Country.

They have always been popular with holiday-makers, so there are a large number of hotels, caravan - and camping-sites and private houses and farms which offer bed and breakfast.

There is a beautiful countryside, where people can get away from it all, and the coastline offers the best beaches and surfing in England.

Also, the weather is usually warmer than in the rest of the country. 2. West Country Food. The national drink of Devon is a cream tea. This consists of a pot of tea and scones served with strawberry jam and cream.

The cream is not the same as that found in the rest of the country.

It is called clotted cream, and it is much thicker and yellower than ordinary cream.

And there is another national dish called a Cornish pasty.

Pasties used to be the main food of Cornish miners fishermen about 150 years ago, because they provided a convenient meal to take to work. They were made of pastry which had either sweet or savoury fillings, and were marked with the owners initials on one end. This was so that if he did not eat all his pasty at once he would know which one belonged to him! Somerset has always been famous for its cheeses.

The most popular variety is probably Cheddar, which is a firm cheese.

It usually has a rather mild flavour but if it is left to ripen, it tastes stronger, and is sold in the shops as mature Cheddar. It takes its name from a small town, which is also, a beauty-spot well-known for its caves, which contain stalagmites and stalactites.

A West Country famous drink is Somerset cider or Scrumpy as it is called.

Cider is made from apples and is sold all over the United Kingdom, but scrumpy is much stronger, and usually has small pieces of the fruit floating in it. 3. Sightseeings.

The country of Wiltshire is most famous for the great stone monuments of Stonehenge and Avebury, and the huge earth pyramid of Silbury.

No written records exist of the origins of these features and they have always been surrounded by mystery.

Stonehenge is the best known and probably the most remarkable of prehistoric remains in the UK. It has stood on Salisbury Plain for about 4000 years.

There have been many different theories about its original use and although modern methods of investigation have extended our knowledge, no one is certain why it was built.

One theory is that it was a place from where stars and planets could be observed.

It was discovered that the positions of some of the stones related to the movements of the sun and moon, so that the stones could be used as a calendar to predict such things as eclipses.

At one time, people thought that Stonehenge was a Druid temple.

The Druids were a Celtic religious group who was suppressed in Great Britain soon after the Roman Conquest.

Some people believe that they were a group of priests, while others regarded them as medicine-men who practised human sacrifice and cannibalism. Because Stonehenge had existed 1000 years before the arrival of the Druids, this theory has been rejected, but it is possible that the Druids used it as a temple.

The theory is kept alive today by members of a group called the Most Ancient Order of Druids who perform mystic rites at dawn on the summer solstice.

Every year, they meet at Stonehenge to greet the first midsummer sunlight as it falls on the stones and they lay out symbolic elements of fire, water, bread, salt and a rose. Another interesting theory is that the great stone circle was used to store terrestrial energy, which was then generated across the country, possibly through ley lines. Ley lines is the name given to invisible lines, which link up ancient sites through out Britain.

They were thought to be tracks by which prehistoric man travelled about the country, but now many people believe that they are mysterious channels for a special kind of power. 4. The sea-ships and sailors.

The coastline of the Southwest of England stretches for 650 miles over 1000 km, and has many different features cliffs, sand, sheltered harbours, estuaries and marshes.

It is not surprising that much of the activity in this region has been inspired by the sea. Side by side on the south coast of Hampshire are the two ports of Portsmouth and Southampton.

Portsmouth is the home of the Royal Navy, and its dockyard has a lot of interesting buildings and monuments.

There is also the Royal Naval museum, where the main attraction is Horatio Nelsons flagship, the Victory. Southampton, on the other hand, is a civilian port for continental ferries, big liners, and oil and general cargo.

Many great sailors had associations with the West Country, for example, Sir Walter Raleigh, the Elizabethan explorer, and Horatio Nelson, who lived in Bath in Somerset.

The most famous sailor of recent times, was Sir Francis Chichester, who returned to Plymouth after sailing round the world alone in Gypsy Moth. In Bristol, to the north, one of the largest Victorian steamships, the Great Britain, has been restored.

It was the first iron ocean - going steamship in the world and was designed by a civil and mechanical engineer with the unusual name of Isambard Kingdom Brunel 1806-1859 . He not only designed three ships including the first transatlantic steamer, the Great Western, but also several docks and a new type of railway that enabled trains to travel at greater speeds.

He also designed the first ever tunnel underneath the Thames and the Clifton Suspension Bridge.

Unfortunately, this coastline, in particular that of Cornwall, is famous - or infamous - in another way too. The foot of Cornwall has the worst of the winter gales, and in recorded history there have been more than fifteen shipwrecks for every mile of coastline. There is even a shipwreck centre and museum near St. Austell where there is an amazing collection of items that have been taken from wrecks over the years.

There are a lot of stories about Cornish wreckers who, it is said, tied lanterns to the tails of cows on cliff-tops or put them on lonely beaches when the weather was bad, so that ships would sail towards the lights and break up on the dangerous rocks near the coast. The wreckers would then be able to steal anything valuable that was washed up on to the shore.