Description of Errors

Description of Errors. A number of different categories for describing errors have been identified.

Firstly, Corder 6, p.34 classifies the errors in terms of the difference between the learners utterance and the reconstructed version. In this way, errors fall into four categories omission of some required element addition of some unnecessary or incorrect element selection of an incorrect element and misordering of the elements. Nevertheless, Corder himself adds that this classification is not enough to describe errors. That is why he includes the linguistics level of the errors under the sub areas of morphology, syntax, and lexicon 6, p.36 Ellis 10, p.44 maintains that classifying errors in these ways can help us to diagnose learners learning problems at any stage of their development and to plot how changes in error patterns occur over time. This categorization can be exemplified as follows Omission Morphological omission ex. A strange thing happen to me yesterday.

Syntactical omission ex. Must say also the names? Addition In morphology ex. The books is here. In syntax ex. The London In lexicon ex. I stayed there during five years ago. Selection In morphology ex. My friend is oldest than me. In syntax ex. I want that he comes here. Ordering In pronunciation ex. fignisicant for significant ex. prulal for plural In morphology ex. get upping for getting up In syntax ex. He is a dear to me friend.

In lexicon ex. key car for car key Appendix 1 Marking errors V wrong form of the verb - something is missing S wrong spelling WO word order S P wrong usage of singular plural form. An error may vary in magnitude.

It can include a phoneme, a morpheme, a word, a sentence or even a paragraph. Due to this fact, errors may also be viewed as being either global or local 4, p.51 . Global errors hinder communication. They prevent the message from being comprehended as in the example below Ex. I like bus but my mother said so not that we must be late for school. On the other hand, local errors do not prevent the message from being understood because there is usually a minor violation of one segment of a sentence that allows the hearer to guess the intended meaning as follows Ex. If I hear from her, I would let you know. The final group is the two related dimensions of error, domain and extent. Domain is the rank of linguistic unit from phoneme to discourse that must be taken as context in order for the error to be understood, and extent is the rank of linguistic unit that would have to be deleted, replaced, supplied or reordered in order to repair the sentence.

This suggestion by Lennon 4, p.53 is parallel with Corder s other categorization of overtly such as I angry are obvious even out of context and covertly 6, p.38 . Overt errors are unquestionably ungrammatical at the sentence level and covert errors are grammatically well- formed at the sentence level but are not interpretable within the context of communication.

For example, I m fine, thanks. Is a correct sentence but if it is given as an answer to the question of How old are you? it is covertly error.

Errors may also be classified according to the level of language phonological errors, vocabulary, morphological errors, and so on. They may be assessed according to the degree to which they interfere with communication global errors make an utterance difficult to understand, while local errors do not. In the above example, I angry would be a local error, since the meaning is apparent.

Students often demonstrate accurate processing hearing of a word but make phonological errors when attempting to reproduce that word. In many cases, students hear or at least opt for a more familiar word. For example Vocabulary errors when some words sound similarly from language to language. For example, sensible in English and sensible in Spanish. However, they have totally different meanings intelligent in English and sensitive in Spanish. These words are considered false cognates of these languages.

If we use Spanish sensible to translate English sensible, we are making a translation error at the vocabulary level. M 8, p.161 Corder introduced the distinction between systematic and non-systematic errors. Unsystematic errors occur in one s native language Corder calls these mistakes and states that they are not significant to the process of language learning. He keeps the term errors for the systematic ones, which occur in a second language. Sources of Errors As there are many descriptions for different kinds of errors, it is inevitable to move further and ask for the sources of errors.

It has been indicated in the fist part of the study that errors were assumed as being the only result of interference of the first language habits to the learning of the second language. However, with the field of error analysis, it has been understood that the nature of errors implicates the existence of other reasons for errors to occur. Then, the sources of errors can be categorized within two domains 1 interlingual transfer, and 2 intralingual transfer. 12, p. 152 Interlingual Transfer Interlingual transfer is a significant source for language learners.

Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics 16, p.310 defines interlingual errors as being the result of language transfer, which is caused by the learner s first language. However, this should not be confused with behaviouristic approach of language transfer. Error analysis does not regard them as the persistence of old habits, but rather as signs that the learner is internalizing and investigating the system of the new language.

Interlingual errors may occur at different levels such as transfer of phonological, morphological, grammatical and lexica-semantic elements of the native language into the target language. Intralingual Transfer and Developmental Errors Interferences from the students own language is not the only reason for committing errors. As Ellis 10, p. 86 states, some errors seem to be universal, reflecting learners attempts to make the task of learning and using the target language simpler.

Use of past tense suffix -ed for all verbs is an example of simplification and overgeneralization. These errors are common in the speech of second language learners, irrespective of their mother tongue. Intralingual errors result from faulty or partial learning of the target language rather than language transfer. They may be caused by the influence of one target language item upon another.

For example, learners attempt to use two tense markers at the same time in one sentence since they have not mastered the language yet. Ex. When they say He is comes here, it is because the singularity of the third person requires is in present continuous, and -s at the end of a verb in simple present tense. In short, intralingual errors occur as a result of learners attempt to build up concepts and hypotheses about the target language from their limited experience with it. Learners may commit errors due to this reason in many ways as in the following examples Ex. He made me to smile.

I want learning English. The meat smells freshly. Doctors always give us good advices. I don t know why did he go. Errors are a means of feedback for the teacher reflecting how effective he is in his teaching style and what changes he has to make to get higher performance from his students. Furthermore, errors indicate the teacher the points that needs further attention.

Additionally, errors show the way to be treated when their sources are identified correctly. 1.4 Error Correction English as a foreign language learners make a lot of mistakes. Speaking, writing, grammar and spelling errors are practically way of life with teachers and learners alike. It s a healthy problem though because with errors come corrections. And with correction comes learning. 4, p.92 The more errors learners make the more correction is done. The more correction is done, the more leaning that takes place.

We most often learn much more from our mistakes than our successes. There are essentially three basic forms of error correction Self-correction Peer correction Teacher correction Of these the most effective in English or foreign language skills acquisition is self-correction. When learners realize and correct their own mistakes, they are more effectively internalizing the language. The next most desirable and effective form is peer correction.

When learners are able to recognize and correct their mistakes collectively, they actually help each other to develop English language skills with less interference of their respective Affective Filters. 12, p.87 Finally, there is correction of errors by the teacher. An effective means, but one that should be last and the least frequently used form of English or other foreign language correction. In cases where the EFL teacher may not be a native or near-native speaker, has grammar or pronunciation problems, heavy accent or speech traits or may otherwise desire to do so, recorded audio or video materials could be used to provide corrective modeling. 12, p.85 Concerning this problem, the most controversial issue is to treat them immediately or to delay.

First, we are confronted with a dilemma - fluency versus accuracy. For communicative purpose, delayed correction is usually preferred. Some advanced students believe that when to correct errors is determined by the type of errors committed. For instance, if they are pronunciation or grammatical errors, immediate correction is preferable, for post-correction cannot make learners remember anything.

Furthermore, the overall situation in the classroom is also important. When the whole class is familiar with a word, but only one of them is singled out for being corrected, he or she would feel awkward. So, we can see that when to correct is very complicated. Both the teachers intuition and the feedback from the students are equally important.

We can categorise an error by the reason for its production or by its linguistic type. Categorising errors What s the reason for the error? It is the result of a random guess pre-systematic. It was produced while testing out hypotheses systematic. It is a slip of the tongue, a lapse, a mistake caused by carelessness, fatigue etc. post-systematic. To be sure about the type of error produced by a student we need to know where the student s interlanguage is the language used by a student in the process of learning a second language. What type is it? According to James 13, p.125 , it is sensible to follow the three principles in error correction.

Firstly, the techniques involved in error correction would be able to enhance the students accuracy in expression. Secondly, the students affective factors should be taken into consideration and the correction should not be face-threatening to the students. Some scholars believed that teachers indirect correction is highly appreciated.

They either encourage students to do self-correction in heuristic method or present the correct form, so students couldn t feel embarrassed. For example, compare the two situations 1 Student What means this word? Teacher No, listen, what does this word mean? 2 Student What means this word? Teacher What does it mean? Well, it is difficult to explain, but it means It is obvious that teacher s remodeling in 2 is more natural and sensible than the direct interruption in 1 . Up till now, both the theory and the application have been illustrated, in the next section we are going to deal with both the significance and limitations of error analysis in language teaching and learning.

In general, the teacher s job is to point out when something has gone wrong and see whether the student can correct himself, then, to find out if what the student say or write is just a mistake, or it is global or local. According to Hendrickson 12, p.97 , global errors need not be corrected and they are generally held true. But the expressions such as a news, or an advice are systematic errors, and they need to be corrected.

As for pre-systematic errors, teachers can simply provide the correct one. For systematic errors, since learners have already had the linguistic competence, they can explain this kind of errors and correct them themselves. So teachers just remind them when they commit such errors. As to what kind of errors should be corrected, it needs teachers intuition and understanding of errors.

At the same time, the teacher should consider the purpose of the analysis and analyze them in a systematic way. However, the technique of correction is not simply presenting the data repeatedly and going through the same set of drills and exercises to produce the state of over learning. On the contrary, it requires that the teacher understand the source of the errors so that he can provide appropriate remedy, which will resolve the learner s problems and allow him to discover the relevant rules.

Thus, the source of the error is an important clue for the teacher to decide on the sort of treatment. Harmer 11, p.57 suggests three steps to be followed by the teacher when errors occur. The teacher first listens to the students, then identifies the problem, and puts it right in the most efficient way. Corder 6, p.52 states that knowledge of being wrong is only a starting point. Skill in correction seems to lie in determining the necessary data to present to the learner and what statements, descriptive or comparative, to make about it. For example, Brown 4, p.96 suggests that local errors as in the following example usually need not be corrected as the message is clear and correction might interrupt a learner in the flow of productive communication Ex. I gave she a present.

On the other hand, global errors need to be treated in some way since the message is not comprehended clearly Ex. Daddy my car happy tomorrow buy. Errors in pluralization, use of articles, tenses, etc. are less important than errors regarding word order, the choice of placement and appropriate connectors in terms of the comprehensibility of the sentence.

Therefore, it is implied that priority in error correction should be given to global errors in order to develop the students communication skills. The knowledge of error analysis enables the teacher to monitor the students errors in this frame and take precautions where needed.

Different kinds of tasks may require a different treatment. The reaction of the teacher towards errors and the type of feedback to be given is usually determined by the position of the error in the objective of the task. Oral works are at crucial point in terms of corrections and feedback time. For oral works, it is usually recommended that students making mistakes during a fluent speech should not be interrupted, but be reminded of the mistakes and talk about the reasons. The type of the feedback- form or content should be decided on according to the goal of the study.

If the goal is to make the students practice a certain grammar point, it may be necessary to give a form feedback. Or else, if a pronunciation item is being practiced, the teacher should correct the related mistakes without interrupting the speaker 19 . The existence of errors has been subject to all language-teaching theories as they represent an important aspect of second language learning. There are different opinions by different language teaching approaches regarding error correction 18 . Below is what they suggest for the correction of errors Audio-lingualism There is little need for correction at first sight.

Latter one is not useful for learning. In audio-lingualism, there is no explicit grammar instruction everything is simply memorized in form. The idea is for the students to practice the particular construct until they can use it spontaneously. An audio-lingual lesson usually begins with a dialogue which contains the grammar and vocabulary to be focused on in the lesson.

The students mimic the dialogue and eventually memorize it. After the dialogue comes pattern drills, in which the grammatical structure introduced in the dialogue is reinforced, with these drills focusing on simple repetition, substitution, transformation, and translation. Drills and pattern practice are typical of the Audio-lingual method. These include Inflection Where one word in a sentence appears in another form when repeated ex. Teacher I ate the sandwich.

Student I ate the sandwiches. Replacement Where one word is replaced by another Ex. Teacher He bought the car for half-price. Student He bought it for half-price. Restatement The student re-phrases an utterance Ex. Teacher Tell me not to smoke so often. Student Don t smoke so often! Repetition where the student repeats an utterance as soon as he hears it The following example illustrates how more than one sort of drill can be incorporated into one practice session Teacher There s a cup on the table repeat Students There s a cup on the table Teacher Spoon Students There s a spoon on the table Teacher Book Students There s a book on the table Teacher On the chair Students There s a book on the chair 11, p.79 Cognitive-code learning Mistakes should be corrected whenever they occur to prevent them occurring again.

Cognitive-code focuses on developing all four skills of language speaking, listening, reading, and writing.

In lessons, the main focus is on the communicative competence and learning the rules of grammar in its new Kolomiec s terms phonology morphology semantics syntax is overemphasized. Lessons focused on learning grammatical structures but the cognitive code approach emphasised the importance of meaningful practice, and the structures were presented inductively, i.e. the rules came after exposure to examples. 1, p. 55 Ex. The aim of the class is for learners to understand the rule of the day, which is that the past form of regular verbs is made using -ed. The teacher elicits a dialogue that includes clear examples of the structure.

The learners practise it, and the teacher uses it to elicit the rules. Interlanguage Mistakes are important part of learning. Correcting them is a way of bringing the learner s interlanguage closer to the target language. Ex. Child Nobody don t like me. Mother No, say nobody likes me. Child Nobody don t like me. after 8 repetitions Mother No, listen carefully say nobody likes me Child Oh! Nobody don t likes me. 20 Communicative approach Not all mistakes need to be corrected.

Focus should be on message rather than mistakes. Focuses on language as a medium of communication. Recognises that all communication has a social purpose - learner has something to say or find out. The communicative approach is based on the idea that learning language successfully comes through having to communicate real meaning.

When learners are involved in real communication, their natural strategies for language acquisition will be used, and this will allow them to learn to use the language. Example Practising question forms by asking learners to find out personal information about their colleagues is an example of the communicative approach, as it involves meaningful communication. Example activities role play, interviews, information gap, games, l Monitor theory Correction does not contribute to language learning.

The learned knowledge helps us to make corrections or change the output of the acquired system. The Monitor Hypothesis is concerned with language production the ability to use language is a result of competence based on acquisition, while learning acts to enable speakers and writers to change the output of the acquired system before they speak or write . 2.