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Development of students speaking and pronunciation skills

Development of students speaking and pronunciation skills - раздел Литература, Multiple Intelligences in the structure of a new English syllabus for secondary school Development Of Students Speaking And Pronunciation Skills. Communicative And ...

Development of students speaking and pronunciation skills. Communicative and whole language instructional approaches promote integration of speaking, listening, reading, and writing in ways that reflect natural language use. But opportunities for speaking and listening require structure and planning if they are to support language development.

This digest describes what speaking involves and what good speakers do in the process of expressing themselves. It also presents an outline for creating an effective speaking lesson and for assessing learners speaking skills. Oral communication skills in adult ESL instruction Outside the classroom, listening is used twice as often as speaking, which in turn is used twice as much as reading and writing. Inside the classroom, speaking and listening are the most often used skills. They are recognized as critical for functioning in an English language context, both by teachers and by learners.

These skills are also logical instructional starting points when learners have low literacy levels in English or their native language or limited formal education, or when they come from language backgrounds with a non-Roman script or a predominantly oral tradition.

Further, with the drive to incorporate workforce readiness skills into adult EFL instruction, practice time is being devoted to such speaking skills as reporting, negotiating, clarifying, and problem solving. What speaking is Speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing and receiving and processing information. Its form and meaning are dependent on the context in which it occurs, including the participants themselves, their collective experiences, the physical environment, and the purposes for speaking.

It is often spontaneous, open-ended, and evolving. However, speech is not always unpredictable. Language functions or patterns that tend to recur in certain discourse situations e.g declining an invitation or requesting time off from work, can be identified and charted. For example, when a salesperson asks May I help you? the expected discourse sequence includes a statement of need, response to the need, offer of appreciation, acknowledgement of the appreciation, and a leave-taking exchange.

Speaking requires that learners not only know how to produce specific points of language such as grammar, pronunciation, or vocabulary linguistic competence, but also that they understand when, why, and in what ways to produce language sociolinguistic competence. Finally, speech has its own skills, structures, and conventions different from written language. A good speaker synthesizes this array of skills and knowledge to succeed in a given speech act. What a good speaker does A speaker s skills and speech habits have an impact on the success of any exchange. Speakers must be able to anticipate and then produce the expected patterns of specific discourse situations.

They must also manage discrete elements such as turn-taking, rephrasing, providing feedback, or redirecting. For example, a learner involved in the exchange with the salesperson described previously must know the usual pattern that such an interaction follows and access that knowledge as the exchange progresses.

The learner must also choose the correct vocabulary to describe the item sought, rephrase or emphasize words to clarify the description if the clerk does not understand, and use appropriate facial expressions to indicate satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the service. Other skills and knowledge that instruction might address include the following producing the sounds, stress patterns, rhythmic structures, and intonations of the language using grammar structures accurately assessing characteristics of the target audience, including shared knowledge or shared points of reference, status and power relations of participants, interest levels, or differences in perspectives selecting vocabulary that is understandable and appropriate for the audience, the topic being discussed, and the setting in which the speech act occurs applying strategies to enhance comprehensibility, such as emphasizing key words, rephrasing, or checking for listener comprehension using gestures or body language and paying attention to the success of the interaction and adjusting components of speech such as vocabulary, rate of speech, and complexity of grammar structures to maximize listener comprehension and involvement. Teachers should monitor learners speech production to determine what skills and knowledge they already have and what areas need development.

Bailey and Savage s New Ways in Teaching Speaking, and Lewis s New Ways in Teaching Adults offer suggestions for activities that can address different skills.

General outline of a speaking lesson Speaking lessons can follow the usual pattern of preparation, presentation, practice, evaluation, and extension.

The teacher can use the preparation step to establish a context for the speaking task where, when, why, and with whom it will occur and to initiate awareness of the speaking skill to be targeted asking for clarification, stressing key words, using reduced forms of words. In presentation, the teacher can provide learners with a preproduction model that furthers learner comprehension and helps them become more attentive observers of language use. Practice involves learners in reproducing the targeted structure, usually in a controlled or highly supported manner.

Evaluation involves directing attention to the skill being examined and asking learners to monitor and assess their own progress. Finally, extension consists of activities that ask learners to use the strategy or skill in a different context or authentic communicative situation, or to integrate use of the new skill or strategy with previously acquired ones see supplement 4 . In-class speaking tasks Although dialogues and conversations are the most obvious and most often used speaking activities in language classrooms, a teacher can select activities from a variety of tasks.

Brown lists six possible task categories Imitative- Drills in which the learner simply repeats a phrase or structure e.g Excuse me. or Can you help me? for clarity and accuracy Intensive- Drills or repetitions focusing on specific phonological or grammatical points, such as minimal pairs or repetition of a series of imperative sentences Responsive- Short replies to teacher or learner questions or comments, such as a series of answers to yes no questions Transactional- Dialogues conducted for the purpose of information exchange, such as information-gathering interviews, role plays, or debates Interpersonal- Dialogues to establish or maintain social relationships, such as personal interviews or casual conversation role plays and Extensive- Extended monologues such as short speeches, oral reports, or oral summaries.

These tasks are not sequential.

Each can be used independently or they can be integrated with one another, depending on learners needs. For example, if learners are not using appropriate sentence intonations when participating in a transactional activity that focuses on the skill of politely interrupting to make a point, the teacher might decide to follow up with a brief imitative lesson targeting this feature.

When presenting tasks, teachers should tell learners about the language function to be produced in the task and the real context s in which it usually occurs. They should provide opportunities for interactive practice and build upon previous instruction as necessary Burns Joyce, 1997 . Teachers should also be careful not to overload a speaking lesson with other new material such as numerous vocabulary or grammatical structures.

This can distract learners from the primary speaking goals of the lesson. Assessing speaking Speaking assessments can take many forms, from oral sections of standardized tests such as the Basic English Skills Test BEST or the English as a Second Language Oral Assessment ESLOA to authentic assessments such as progress checklists, analysis of taped speech samples, or anecdotal records of speech in classroom interactions.

Assessment instruments should reflect instruction and be incorporated from the beginning stages of lesson planning. For example, if a lesson focuses on producing and recognizing signals for turn-taking in a group discussion, the assessment tool might be a checklist to be completed by the teacher or learners in the course of the learners participation in the discussion. Finally, criteria should be clearly defined and understandable to both the teacher and the learners.

Improving secondary school graduates EFL Learners Pronunciation Skills Observations that limited pronunciation skills can undermine learners self-confidence, restrict social interactions, and negatively influence estimations of a speaker s credibility and abilities are not new. However, the current focus on communicative approaches to English as a second language ESL instruction and the concern for building teamwork and communication skills in an increasingly diverse workplace are renewing interest in the role that pronunciation plays in adults overall communicative competence.

As a result, pronunciation is emerging from its often marginalized place in adult ESL instruction. This paper reviews the current status of pronunciation instruction in adult ESL classes. It provides an overview of the factors that influence pronunciation mastery and suggests ways to plan and implement pronunciation instruction. Historical Perspective Pronunciation instruction tends to be linked to the instructional method being used. In the grammar-translation method of the past, pronunciation was almost irrelevant and therefore seldom taught.

In the audio-lingual method, learners spent hours in the language lab listening to and repeating sounds and sound combinations. With the emergence of more holistic, communicative methods and approaches to EFL instruction, pronunciation is addressed within the context of real communication. Factors Influencing Pronunciation Mastery Research has contributed some important data on factors that can influence the learning and teaching of pronunciation skills. Age. The debate over the impact of age on language acquisition and specifically pronunciation is varied.

Some researchers argue that, after puberty, lateralization the assigning of linguistic functions to the different brain hemispheres is completed, and adults ability to distinguish and produce native-like sounds is more limited.

Others refer to the existence of sensitive periods when various aspects of language acquisition occur, or to adults need to re-adjust existing neural networks to accommodate new sounds. Most researchers, however, agree that adults find pronunciation more difficult than children do and that they probably will not achieve native-like pronunciation. Yet experiences with language learning and the ability to self-monitor, which come with age, can offset these limitations to some degree.

Amount and type of prior pronunciation instruction. Prior experiences with pronunciation instruction may influence learners success with current efforts. Learners at higher language proficiency levels may have developed habitual, systematic pronunciation errors that must be identified and addressed. Aptitude. Individual capacity for learning languages has been debated. Some researchers believe all learners have the same capacity to learn a second language because they have learned a first language.

Others assert that the ability to recognize and internalize foreign sounds may be unequally developed in different learners. Learner attitude and motivation. Nonlinguistic factors related to an individual s personality and learning goals can influence achievement in pronunciation. Attitude toward the target language, culture, and native speakers degree of acculturation including exposure to and use of the target language personal identity issues and motivation for learning can all support or impede pronunciation skills development. Native language.

Most researchers agree that the learner s first language influences the pronunciation of the target language and is a significant factor in accounting for foreign accents. So-called interference or negative transfer from the first language is likely to cause errors in aspiration, intonation, and rhythm in the target language. The pronunciation of any one learner might be affected by a combination of these factors.

The key is to be aware of their existence so that they may be considered in creating realistic and effective pronunciation goals and development plans for the learners. For example, native-like pronunciation is not likely to be a realistic goal for older learners a learner who is a native speaker of a tonal language, such as Vietnamese, will need assistance with different pronunciation features than will a native Spanish speaker and a twenty-three year old engineer who knows he will be more respected and possibly promoted if his pronunciation improves is likely to be responsive to direct pronunciation instruction.

Language Features Involved in Pronunciation Two groups of features are involved in pronunciation segmentals and suprasegmentals. Segmentals are the basic inventory of distinctive sounds and the way that they combine to form a spoken language. In the case of North American English, this inventory is comprised of 40 phonemes 15 vowels and 25 consonants, which are the basic sounds that serve to distinguish words from one another.

Pronunciation instruction has often concentrated on the mastery of segmentals through discrimination and production of target sounds via drills consisting of minimal pairs like bжd - bжt or sIt - sоt. Suprasegmentals transcend the level of individual sound production. They extend across segmentals and are often produced unconsciously by native speakers. Since suprasegmental elements provide crucial context and support they determine meaning for segmental production, they are assuming a more prominent place in pronunciation instruction. Suprasegmentals include the following stress-a combination of length, loudness, and pitch applied to syllables in a word e.g Happy, FOOTball rhythm-the regular, patterned beat of stressed and unstressed syllables and pauses e.g with weak syllables in lower case and stressed syllables in upper case they WANT to GO Later. adjustments in connected speech-modifications of sounds within and between words in streams of speech e.g ask him, жsk hIm becomes жs kIm prominence-speaker s act of highlighting words to emphasize meaning or intent e.g Give me the BLUE one. not the yellow one and intonation-the rising and falling of voice pitch across phrases and sentences e.g Are you REAdy Incorporating Pronunciation in the Curriculum In general, programs should start by establishing long range oral communication goals and objectives that identify pronunciation needs as well as speech functions and the contexts in which they might occur. These goals and objectives should be realistic, aiming for functional intelligibility ability to make oneself relatively easily understood, functional communicability ability to meet the communication needs one faces, and enhanced self-confidence in use. They should result from a careful analysis and description of the learners needs. This analysis should then be used to support selection and sequencing of the pronunciation information and skills for each sub-group or proficiency level within the larger learner group. To determine the level of emphasis to be placed on pronunciation within the curriculum, programs need to consider certain variables specific to their contexts. the learners ages, educational backgrounds, experiences with pronunciation instruction, motivations, general English proficiency levels the instructional setting academic, workplace, English for specific purposes, literacy, conversation, family literacy institutional variables teachers instructional and educational experiences, focus of curriculum, availability of pronunciation materials, class size, availability of equipment linguistic variables learners native languages, diversity or lack of diversity of native languages within the group methodological variables method or approach embraced by the program Incorporating Pronunciation in Instruction Celce-Murcia, Brinton, and Goodwin propose a framework that supports a communicative-cognitive approach to teaching pronunciation.

Preceded by a planning stage to identify learners needs, pedagogical priorities, and teachers readiness to teach pronunciation, the framework for the teaching stage of the framework offers a structure for creating effective pronunciation lessons and activities on the sound system and other features of North American English pronunciation. description and analysis of the pronunciation feature to be targeted raises learner awareness of the specific feature listening discrimination activities learners listen for and practice recognizing the targeted feature controlled practice and feedback support learner production of the feature in a controlled context guided practice and feedback offer structured communication exercises in which learners can produce and monitor for the targeted feature communicative practice and feedback provides opportunities for the learner to focus on content but also get feedback on where specific pronunciation instruction is needed. A lesson on word stress, based on this framework, might look like the following The teacher presents a list of vocabulary items from the current lesson, employing both correct and incorrect word stress.

After discussing the words and eliciting if appropriate learners opinions on which are the correct versions, the concept of word stress is introduced and modeled.

Learners listen for and identify stressed syllables, using sequences of nonsense syllables of varying lengths e.g da-DA, da-da-DA-da. Learners go back to the list of vocabulary items from step one and, in unison, indicate the correct stress patterns of each word by clapping, emphasizing the stressed syllables with louder claps.

New words can be added to the list for continued practice if necessary.

In pairs, learners take turns reading a scripted dialogue.

As one learner speaks, the other marks the stress patterns on a printed copy. Learners provide one another with feedback on their production and discrimination.

Learners make oral presentations to the class on topics related to their current lesson. Included in the assessment criteria for the activity are correct production and evidence of self-monitoring of word stress.

In addition to careful planning, teachers must be responsive to learners needs and explore a variety of methods to help learners comprehend pronunciation features.

Useful exercises include the following Have learners touch their throats to feel vibration or no vibration in sound production, to understand voicing.

Have learners use mirrors to see placement of tongue and lips or shape of the mouth.

Have learners use kazoos to provide reinforcement of intonation patterns Have learners stretch rubber bands to illustrate lengths of vowels. Provide visual or auditory associations for a sound a buzzing bee demonstrates the pronunciation of z. Ask learners to hold up fingers to indicate numbers of syllables in words. 3.1.2 Use the World Wide Web in teaching English to secondary school graduates The Internet - a network that links computers all over the world - is now used widely by businesses, educators, government staff, and individuals for information gatthering, entertainment, commerce, and Communication.

Much has been written about the use of Internet technologies such as e-mail, listsers, bulletin boards, and newsgroups in ESL and foreign language classroom. Skills developed through the World Wide Web. Websites cover a wide variety of topics and interests including health, entertainment, news and sports.

These sites provide information with which learners can interact in order to built basic language and employability skills. A number of websites were created especially for English learners and contain exercises in grammar, vocabulary, writing, or reading. with the help of many websites we can develop the linguistic intelligence. It gives us opportunity to write, listen and speak.

We can speak with our partners in the UK or the USA using computers Web. For example, one of my pupils likes to write letter by e-mail. He gets more information not only about another country or city but he learns the genuine English. He is developing the Linguistic Intelligence there. with the help of Sound Card we can develop the Musical Intelli- gence. If a person listens to the music he or she feels the musical elements - pitch, rhythm, and timbre understanding the characteristic qualities of a tone . 3.1.3 Use of the Video in teaching English to secondary school graduates Video can be used in a variety of instructional settings - in classrooms. In distance-learning sites where information is broadcast from a central point to learners who interact with a facilitatir via video or computer.

It can be used in teachersprofecional development or with students as ways of presenting content, starting corversations, and providing illustration for concepts.

Students or senior pupils can create their own videotapes as content for the class. It provides the development of MI. There are such advantages there There are a number of good reasons to use video in the senior forms. Video combines visual and audio stimuli, is accessible to those who have not yet learned to read and write well, and provides context for leanning. As for TEFL, video has the added benefit of providing real language and cultural information. Video can be controlled stopped, paused, repeated, and it can be presented to a group of students, to individuals.

It allows learners to see facial expressions and body language at the same time as they hear the stress, intonation, and rhythms of the language. Authentic videos. Many excellent videos present real language and the senior pupils can hear the genuine language. These videos include movies, television programmes, and news broadcasts they can provide a realistic view of American culture. Challenges The use of authentic videos is challenging. Often they do not provide the best means of explaining complex concepts or practicing particular grammar or writing skills.

It takes time for the teacher to preview and select authentic videos and then to prepare activities for learners. As the language use and the context of authentic videos are not controlled, teachers will need to take time these. Selecting videos. The teachers have to ask themselves the following questions before choosing a video or video series - Inspiration Motivation Interest Will the video appeal to to my students? Will it make them want to learn? Content Does the content match my instructional goals? Is it culturally appropriate for my learners.

Clarity of message Is the instructional message clear to my students?Here the teacher is vital. Preparing the learners to understand what they are going to watch makes the difference between time wasted and time well spent. Pacing Is the rate of the language or instruction too fast for my students? Graphics What graphics are used to explain a concept? Do they clarify it? Do they appear on screen long enough to be understood by the learner? In some instructional videos, graphics, charts, and even language patterns may be on the screen too briefly to be fully comprehended.

Length of sequence Is the sequence to be shown short enough? With ESL learners, segments that are less than five minutes are often sufficient. A two- to three- minute segment can easiely furnish enough material for one -hour lesson.

Independence of sequence Can this segment be understood without lengthy explanations of the plot, setting, and preceding and following it? Teachers need to decide whether its worth investing the time and effort to prepare learners to understand the context of certain language and cultural nuances, or distinctions. Availability and quality of related materials What print materials accompany the video. Use of videos How will I use the video? After the viewing, the teacher have to discuss the films with the senior pupils.

Videos are a powerful tool in helping English language learners improve their language skills. They provide the learner with content, context, and language. Videos will play an increase role in prividing ESL instruction to students in the classroom. The students get more information about U.S. culture. Conclusions 1.Multiple Intelligences are used as strategy for TEFL. 2.According to the structure there are seven intelligences Logical-Mathematical Intelligence, Linguistic Intelligence, Spatial Intelligence, Musical Intelligence, Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence, The Personal Intelligence, Intrapersonal Intelligence. 3.With the help of these Intelligences we can teach English. 4.According to Howard Gardner s theory there are such principles 1.Intelligence is not singular intelligences are multiple. 2.Every person is a unique blend of dynamic intelligences. 3.Intelligences vary in development, both within and among individuals. 4.All intelligences are dynamic. 5.Multiple intelligences can be identified and described. 6.Every person deserve opportunities to recognize and develop the multiplicity of intelligences. 7.The use of one of the intelligences can be used to enhance another intelligence. 8.Personal background density and dispersion are critical to knowledge, beliefs, and skills in all intelligences. 9.All intelligences provide alternate resources and potential capacities to become more human, regardless of age or circumstance. 10.A pure intelligence is rarely seen. 11.Developmental theory applies to the theory of multiple intelligences.

I have sketched the background and the major claims of a new approach to the conceptualization and assessment of human intelligence.

Put forth in 1983, the theory of multiple intelligences has inspired a number of research-and-development projects that are taking place in schools ranging from preschool through high school.

Until now, our focus has fallen largely on the development of instruments that can assess strengths and weaknesses in an intelligence-fair way. This research-and-development process has proved time consuming and costly. The measures must involve materials that are appealing and familiar to children there is little precedent for developing scoring systems that go beyond linguistic and logical criteria and materials appropriate for one age group, gender, or social class may not be appropriate for others.

Of course, it should be recalled that huge amounts of time and money have already been invested in standard psychometric instruments, whose limitations have become increasingly evident in recent years. Once adequate materials have been developed, it becomes possible to begin to address some of the theoretical claims that grow out of MI Theory.

They have presented here some preliminary findings from one of our current projects. These results give some support to the major claims of the theory, inasmuch as children ranging in age from three to seven do exhibit profiles of relative strength and weakness.

At the same time, even these preliminary data indicate that the final story on Multiple Intelligences may turn out to be more complex than we envisioned. Thus, the rather different profile of results obtained with our two young populations indicates that, in future research, we must pay closer attention to three factors a the developmental appropriateness of the materials b the social class background, which may well exert an influence on a child s ability and willingness to engage with diverse materials and c the exact deployment of the Spectrum materials and assessment instruments in the classroom.

Some critics have suggested that MI Theory cannot be disconfirmed. The preliminary results presented here indicate some of the ways in which its central claims can indeed be challenged. If future assessments do not reveal strengths and weaknesses within a population, if performances on different activities prove to be systematically correlated, and if constructs and instruments like the IQ explain the preponderance of the variance on activities configured to tap specific intelligences, then MI Theory will have to be revamped.

Even so, the goal of detecting distinctive human strengths, and using them as a basis for engagement and learning, may prove to be worthwhile, irrespective of the scientific fate of the theory.

Schools have often sought to help students develop a sense of accomplishment and self-confidence. Gardner s Theory of Multiple Intelligences provides a theoretical foundation for recognizing the different abilities and talents of students. This theory acknowledges that while all students may not be verbally or mathematically gifted, children may have an expertise in other areas, such as music, spatial relations, or interpersonal knowledge. Approaching and assessing learning in this manner allows a wider range of students to successfully participate in classroom learning.

Speaking is key to communication. By considering what good speakers do, what speaking tasks can be used in class, and what specific needs learners report, teachers can help learners improve their speaking and overall oral competency. Pronunciation can be one of the most difficult parts of a language for adult learners to master and one of the least favorite topics for teachers to address in the classroom.

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Zephyr Press,Spring,1997 105 p. 47.Campbell,Bruce. Multiplying Intelligence in the Classroom. On the Beam,Vol IX, N2,Winter 1989 127 p. 48.Campbell,Bruce. The Multiple Intelligences. NY,1995 198 p. 49.Campbell,Bruce. The research Results of a Multiple Intelligences Classroom. NY,1990 211 p. 50.Campbell,Linda,Cample,Bruce, and Dickson, Dee. Teaching and Learning Through MultipleIntelligences.

NY Allyn Bacon. 1998 2nd edition 142 p. 51.Dickinson,Dee. Learning Through Many Kinds of Intelligence.

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Educational Leadership,October,1992, p. 69-72. 53.Enloe,W and Simon, K. Methods of teaching English. NY,1993- 121 p. 54.Fogarty, R Perkins, D and Barell, J. How to teach ESL.NY,1992 142 p. 55.Gardner, Howard.

Intelligence in Seven Steps. NY,1991 245 p. 56.Gardner, Howard, Mindy L. Kornhaber, Warren K. Wake. Intelligence Multiple Perspectives. NY Harcourt, Brace. 1996 211p. 57.Gardner, Howard. Art Education and Human Development. Los Angeles The Getty Center for Education in the Arts, NY,1990 316p. 58.Gardner, Haward. Art,Mind and Brain. NY. Basic Books, 1982 314 p. 59.Gardner, H. And Perkins, D. Eds. Art,Mind, and Education. Urbana University of Illinois Press. The Spring, 1988 issue of 60.Journal of Aesthetic Education. 1987 116 p. 61.Gardner, H. The Arts and Human Development.

NY Wiley, 1973 321 p. 62.Gardner, Howard. Frames of Mind The Theory of Multiple Intelligences 10 th Anniversary Edition. NY Basic Books, 1993 345 p. 63.Gardner, Howard. The Minds New Science. NY Basic Boocs, 1985 134 p. 64.Gardner, Howard. Multiple Intelligences The Theory in Practice. NY Basic Books, 1992 231 p. 65.Gardner, Howard, and Thomas Hatch. Multiple Intelligences in the senior forms.

NY, 1989. -145 p. 66.Gardner, Howard, and Tina Blythe. A school for All Intelligences. Educational Leadership April, 1990, p.33-37. 67.Gardner, Howard Veenema, Shirley. Multimedia and Multiple Intelligences, The American Prospect no.29 November- December 1996 p. 69-75 68.Hoerr, Thomas R. How our school Applied Multiple Intelligences Theory. Educational Leadership, October, 1992, 67-768. 69.Smagorinsky, Peter. Expressions Multiple Intelligences in the English Class Urbana. IL National Council of teachers of English,1991 240 p. 70.Wahl, Mark. Multiple Intelligences.

NY, 1999 150 p. Supplements Supplement 1. Relation of the Methodology of Foreign Language Teaching to other sciences Methods of foreign language teaching is understood here as a body of scientifically tested theory concerning the teaching of foreign languages in schools and others educational institutions. It covers three main problems 1. aims of teaching a foreign language 2. content of teaching, i.e. what to teach to attain the aims 3. methods and techniques of teaching, i.e. how to teach a foreign language to attain the aims in the most effective way. Methods of foreign language teaching is closely related to other sciences such as pedagogies, psychology, physiology, linguistics and some others.

Pedagogics is the science concerned with the teaching and education of the younger generation. Since Methods also deals with the problems of teaching and education, it is most closely related to pedagogics.

To study foreign language teaching one must know pedagogics. One branch of pedagogics is called didactics. Didactics studies general ways of teaching in schools. Methods, as compared to didactics, studies the specific ways of teaching a definite subject. Thus, it may be considered special didactics. In the foreign language teaching, as well as in the teaching of mathematics, history and other subjects taught in schools, general principles of didactics are applied and, in their turn, influence and enrich didactics.

For example, the so-called principle of visualization was first introduced in teaching foreign languages. Now it has become one of the fundamental principles of didactics and is used in teaching all school subjects without exception. Programmed instruction was first applied to teaching mathematics. Now through didactics it is used in teaching many subjects, including foreign languages. Teaching a foreign language means first and foremost the formation and development of pupils habits and skills in hearing, speaking, reading, and writing. We cannot expect to develop such habits and skills of our pupils effectively if we do not know and take into account the p s y c h o l o g y of habits and skills, the ways of forming them, the influence of formerly acquired habits on the formation of new ones, and many other necessary factors that psychology can supply us with. At present we have much material in the field of psychology which can be applied to teaching a foreign language.

For example, N. I. Zhinkin, in his investigation of the mechanisms of speech came to the conclusion that words and rules of combining them are most probably dormant in the kinetic center of the brain.

When the ear receives a signal it reaches the brain, its hearing center and then passes to the kinetic center. Thus, if a teacher wants his pupils to speak English he must use all the opportunities he has to make them hear and speak it. Furthermore, to master a second language is to acquire another code, another way of receiving and transmitting information.

To create this new code in the most effective way one must take into consideration certain psychological factors. Effective learning of a foreign language depends to a great extent on the pupils memory. That is why a teacher must know how he can help his pupils to successfully memorize and retain in memory the language material they learn. Here again psychological investigations are significant. In learning a subject both voluntary and involuntary memory is of great importance.

In his investigation of involuntary memory P. K. Zinchenko came to the conclusion that this memory is retentive. Consequently, in teaching a foreign language we should create favourable conditions for involuntary memorizing. P. K. Zinchenko showed that involuntary memorizing is possible only when pupils attention is concentrated not on fixing the material in their memory through numerous repetitions, but on solving some mental problems which deal with this material.

To prove this the following experiment was carried out. Students of group A were given a list of words to memorize voluntary memorizing. Students of group B did not receive a list of words to memorize. Instead, they got an English text and some assignments which made them work with these words, use them in answering various questions. During the next lesson a vocabulary test was given to the students of both groups.

The results were approximately the same. A test given a fortnight later proved, however, that the students of group B retained the words in their memory much better than the students of group A. This shows that involuntary memorizing may be more retentive under certain circumstances. Experiments by prominent scientists show that psychology helps Methods to determine the role of the mother tongue in different stages of teaching the amount of material for pupils to assimilate at every stage of instruction the sequence and ways in which various habits and skills should be developed the methods and techniques which are more suitable for presenting the material and for ensuring its retention by the pupils, and so on. Methods of foreign language teaching has a definite relation to p h y s i o 1 o g y of the higher nervous system.

Pavlov s theories of conditioned reflexes, of the second signaling system and of dynamic stereotype are the examples. Each of these interrelated theories bears a direct relation to the teaching of a foreign language.

According to Pavlov habits are conditioned reflexes, and a conditioned reflex is an action performed automatically in response to a definite stimulus as a result of previ- ous frequent repetitions of the same action. If we, thoroughly study the theory of conditioned reflexes we shall see that it explains and confirms the necessity for frequent repetitions and revision of material pupils study as one of the means of inculcating habits.

Pavlov showed that man s higher nervous activities - speaking and thinking - are the functions of a special system of organic structures within the nervous system. This system is developed only in man. It enables the brain to respond to inner stimuli as it responds to outer stimuli or signals perceived through the sense organs. Pavlov named this the second signaling system. Consequently one of the forms of human behaviour is language behaviour, i. e speech response to different communication situations.

Therefore in teaching a foreign language we must bear in mind that pupils should acquire the language they study as a behaviour, as something that helps people to communicate with each other in various real situations of intercourse. Hence a foreign language should be taught through such situations. Pavlov s theory of dynamic stereotype also furnishes the physiological base for many important principles of language teaching, e. g for the topical vocabulary arrangement.

Methods of foreign language teaching is most closely related to linguistics, since linguistics deals with the problems which are of paramount importance to Methods, with language and thinking, grammar and vocabulary, the relationship between grammar and vocabulary, and many others. Methods successfully uses, for example, the results of linguistic investigation in the selection and arrangement of language material for teaching. It is known that structural linguistics has had a great impact on language teaching.

Teaching materials have been prepared by linguists and methodologists of the structural school. Many prominent linguists have not only developed the theory of linguistics, but tried to apply it to language teaching. The following quotation may serve as a proof of this It has occurred to the linguist as well a s to the psychologist that the foreign language classroom should be an excellent laboratory in which to test new theories of language acquisition.

Methods of foreign language teaching like any other science, has definite ways of investigating the problems which may arise. They are 1. a critical study of the ways foreign languages were taught in our country and abroad 2. a thorough study and summing up of the experience of the best foreign language teachers in different types of schools 3. experimenting with the aim of confirming or refuting the working hypotheses that may arise during investigation. Experimenting becomes more and more popular with methodologists.

In experimenting methodologists have to deal with different data, that is why in arranging research work they use mathematics, statistics, and probability theory to interpret experimental results. In recent years there has been a great increase of interest in Methods since foreign language teaching has many attractions as an area for research. A great deal of useful research work has been carried out. New ideas and new data produced as the result of research are usually developed into new teaching materials and teaching techniques.

It should be said that we need research activities of the following types descriptive research which deals with what to teach experimental and instrumental research dealing with how to teach. More research is now needed which compares different combination of devices, various teaching aids. Supplement 2. Methods of Foreign Language Teaching At the term of the 17th century Volfgang Ratichius 1571-1635 complained about contemporary methods of LT stressed rote learning and grammar at the expense of reading and spearing.

He initiated the principle of cognitive leaning of Latin translation as a basic means of semantization and emphasized on repetition as a favored technique. But it remained for his successor, the famous Czech educator Ian Comenius 1592-1670 to devise new methods of LT based on new principles. Instead of rules, I. Comenius used imitation, repetition and plently of practice in both reading and speaking.

In 1631 Ian Comenius published his book Ianua linguarum reserata - The Gates of Languages Unlocked in which he described new methods of language teaching based on his principles. The book included a limited vocabulary of a few thousand word each used in a sentence which gave some indication of meaning. Orbis Pictus 1658 is another book by Ian Comenius in which a Latin text is accompanied by illustrations and translations into the mother tongue.

Great attention is paid to direct associations between the word in a FL and an object it denotes. In this way the role of the mother tongue was limited. Ian Comenius recommended the following principles from easy to difficult from simple to complex from know to unknown. Language teaching remained the chief concern of Ian Comenius. His Linguarum methodus novissima Contemporary modern methods revised contains one of the first attempts to teach grammar inductively. Didactica Magna was a more ambitious work that went beyong language teaching and laid the foundations for modern pedagogy.

Grammar-Translation Method This method has been with us through the centuries and is still with us. It has had different names at one time it was called Classical Method since it was used in the teaching of the classical language, Latin and Greek. The method involves many written exercises, much translation and lengthy vocabulary lists. The teacher describes in detail the grammar of the language, focusing on the form and infection of words.

This method aims at providing an understanding of the grammar of the language in question expressed in traditional terms, and at training the students to read and write the target language, rather than mastering the oral and aural skills. To do this the students need to learn the grammar rules and vocabulary of the target language. It was hoped that, by doing this students would become more familiar with the grammar of the native language and that this familiarity would help them speak and write their native language better.

It was also thought that foreign language learning would help students grow intellectually it was recognized that students would probably never use the target language, but the mental exercise of learning it would be beneficial anyway. Students study grammar deductively that is, they are given rules and examples, they are told to memorise then, and then are asked to apply rules to other examples.

They also learn grammatical paradigms such as the plural of nouns, degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs, verb conjugations. They memories native language equivalents for foreign language vocabulary lists. The techniques of G-TM imply bilingual vocabulary lists, written exercises, elaborate grammatical explanations, translation, and total involvement in reading and writing. The objectives of G-TM are non-utilitarian - confined to understanding of literature which gives keys to great classical culture.

The advantages of this method lie in its limited objectives understanding of written language and some basic writing and translation. The method is not demanding for the teacher simple preparation from a textbook and little physical endeavour. The disadvantages of this method include a total neglect of spoken language, communication skills, use of esoteric vocabulary, and monotonous procedure in class. Thus the Grammar-Translation Method is simply a combination of the activities of grammar and translation.

The teacher begins with rules isolated vocabulary items, paradigms and translation. Pronunciation either is not taught or is limited to a few introductory notes. Grammar rules are memorized as units, which sometimes include illustrative sentences. Harold Palmers Method Harold Palmer the great English authority and teacher, experimented extensively with the question-answer method. He considered question-answer work to be the most effective of all language learning exercise ever devised. Palmer insisted, however, that if this technique was to be carried out successfully, all questions asked by the teacher must be carefully planned and thought out beforehand.

Questions should never be haphazard, either in form or content. Specifically, H. Palmer thought that any question asked by the teacher should be of a nature that admits the following a an obvious answer, not an answer that requires one or more complicated acts of judgement on the part of the student b an easy answer, not one that requires the use of word, facts, or constructions unknown to the student c a relevant answer, direct answer involving only a moderate change through the process of conversion, substitution, or completion of the material contained in the teachers question.

In H. Palmers view, there are three stages of learning 1. Receiving knowledge. 2. Fixing it in the memory by repetition. 3. Using the knowledge by real practice. H. Palmer was the author of some 50 theoretical works, textbooks and manuals.

Of great interest are H. Palmers 100 Substitution Tables, in which sentence patterns are arranged in tables for pupils to make up their sentences, following the pattern. His main findings can be conveniently summarized as the following objectives 1. Phonetic, semantic and syntactic aspects. 2. Oral speech by way of speaking and understanding. 3. Accumulation of passive material with subsequent active reproduction. 4. Techniques used for translation include visuality, interpretation and verbal context. 5. Speech patterns to be learn by heart. 6. Rational selection of vocabulary based on frequency counts and utility. 7. Topical selection minimum vocabulary list of 3000 words.

H. Palmer paid great attention to a system of exercises, which in his should include 1. receptive -question and short answers to them 2. receptive-imitative -words and word-combinations repeated after the teacher 3. conversational -questions, answers, commands and completion of sentences.

Thus H. Palmer method is based on rationalization of teaching learning process and systematic selection of material. Teaching speaking features prominelity in H. Palmers method, hence its name oral method. Direct Method The Direct Method appeared as a reaction to the GTM and the failure to procedure learns who could use the foreign language they had been studying. The Direct Method was based on the belief that students could learn a language through listening to it and that they learn to speak by speaking it - associating speech with appropriate action, like the way the children learn native tongue.

The Direct Method received its name from the fact that meaning is to be related to the target language directly, without going through the process of translating into the students native language. The various oral and natural methods which developed at the turn of the century may be grouped under DM. The students learn new words and phrases from objects.

Actions and mime. When the meaning of words could not be made clear, the teacher would resort to semantization but never to native language translations. From the beginning, students are accustomed to hearing complete meaningful sentences in the target language. Grammar is taught at a later stage inductively, numerous examples of a certain principle are presented and the rule is then inferred from these examples. An explicit grammar rule may never be given.

Students learn to think in the target language as soon as possible. Vocabulary is acquired more naturally if students use in full sentences, rather than memorizing long lists of words. Vocabulary is emphasized over grammar. Although work on all four skills occurs from the start, oral communication is seen as basic. Thus the reading and writing exercises are based upon what the students have orally practiced first. Pronunciation also receives due attention from the beginning of the course.

Desides studying every speech the learns also do history, geography and culture of the country or countries where the language spoken. The teacher who employs DM asks the students to self-correct their answers by asking them to make a choice between what they said and alternate answer he supplies. There are, of course, other ways of getting students to self-correct. For example, a teacher might simply repeat what a student has just said using a questioning voice to signal to the student that something was wrong with it. Another possibility is for teacher to repeat what the student said, stopping just before the error.

The student then knows that the next word was wrong. There are also other options of remedial work. The main principles of DM can be summarized under the following headings Techniques 1. FL used throughout. 2. Audio-visual approach. 3. Speech before reading. 4. No translation-meaning conveyed through visual mime. Objectives 1. Fluency in speech. 2. Capacity to think in target language. 3. Meaningful everyday language. 4. Grammar to be include from practice. 5. Explanations in foreign language.

Pros 1. Lively procedure in classroom. 2. Correct pronunciation. 3. Absence of rule-giving. 4. Learning through doing Cons 1. Plunges learners too soon into unstructured situations. 2. Foreign-Language learner not like infant native-language learner. 3. Dangers of including wrong rule. 4. Tremendous energy needed be teacher. Audio-Lingual Method The Audio-Lingual Method like the Direct Method we have just examined, has a goal very different from that of the Grammar-Translation Method.

The Audio-Lingual Method was developed in the United States during the Second World War. At that time there was a need for people to learn foreign languages rapidly for military purposes. As we have seen G-TM did not prepare people to use the target language. While the communication in the target language was the goal of DM, there were at the time exciting new ideas about language and learning emanating from the disciplines of descriptive linguistics and behavioural psychology. We can trace the Audio-Lingual Method rather directly to the scientific linguistics of Leonard Bloomfield and his followers.

Both behaviouristic psychology and structural linguistics constituted a reaction against a vague and unscientific approach to the questions of human behaviour. Including the acquisition of knowledge. Every language, as it is viewed here, has its own unique system.

This system is comprised of several different levels phonological, lexical, and syntactical. Each level has its own distinctive features. Everyday speech is emphasized in the Audio-Lingual Method. The level of complexity of the speech is graded so that beginning students are presented with only simple forms. The structures of the language are emphasised over all other areas. The syllabus is typically a structural one, with the structure for any particular unit include in the new dialogue.

Vocabulary is also contextualized within the dialogue. It is however, limited since the emphasis is placed on the acquisition of the patterns of the language. The underlying provision of this method include five maxims to guide teachers in applying the result of linguistic research to the preparation of teaching materials and to classroom techniques 8. Language is speech, not writing. a Emphasis on correct pronunciation from the beginning b Listening and speaking before reading and writing c Realistic, situation utterances from start d Oral mastery first reading writing as reinforcers time lag will depend on sitution. 9. Language is a set of habits. a Based on the assumption that language learning is a habit formation process, pattern drilling and dialogue memorization are extensively used 10. Teach the language, not about language a Revolt against the grammar-translation method b Grammar for the teacher not the learner c Learn through doing, through active practice d Practice first, rules induced later. 11. A language is what its native speakers say, not what someone thinks they ought to say a Emphasis on colloquial wealth of language b Literary language at much later stage c Traditional grammar mistrusted functional styles occupational, emotive, informative studied as well as language of attitude. 12. Languages are different a Universal rules of transformational grammar mistrusted b Contrastive studies of language encouraged c Translation accepted when necessary or possible d Translation a later skill with its own techniques Techniques 1. Situational dialogues. 2. Everyday language. 3. Emphasis on speaking - aural - oral active participation. 4. Mimicry-memorisation. 5. Pattern-drilling-choral individual - Role playing Dialogue building. 6. Reading and writing to reinforce. 7. Awareness of graphic interference. 8. Rules to be induced from practice.

A-LM enables the students to use the target language communicatively.

In order to do this the students are believed to overlearn the target language.

To learn to use it automatically without stopping to think. The students achieve this by forming new habits in the target language and overcoming the old habits of their native language.

The teacher is like an orchestral leader, directing and controlling the language behaviour of the students. He is also responsible for providing his students with a good model of imitation. The students are imitators of the teachers model or the tapes he supplies of model speakers.

They follow the teachers directions and respond as accurately and as rapidly as they can. New vocabulary and structures are presented through dialogues and texts. These are learnt through imitation and repetition, transposition are based upon the patterns in the dialogue or texts. Students successful responses are positively reinforced. Grammar is induced from the example given explict grammar rules are not provided.

Cultural information is contextualized in the dialogues and texts or presented by the teacher. Students reading and writing work is based upon the oral work they did earlier. Thus the main provisions of this method can be conveniently summarized in the following way Fluency on four skills with initial emphasis on listening and speaking. Formative function understanding culture through language. Pros 1. Useful language learnt from outset. 2. Good pronunciation achieved through sound discrimination and auditory practice. 3. Materials especially devised on contrastive analysis rather than total structures -presentation based on frequency counts and utility. 4. Reading and writing not neglected but postponed to serve as reinforcement. 5. Highly motivating learner senses achievement from beginning through practical use and participation. 6. A-LM requires and encourages use of simple and mechanical aids. Cons 1. Lack of spontaneity if learning is overmechanical. 2. Reliance on inductive process dangerous. 3. Time lag between oral and written work dependence on ear alone can lead to insecurity - emotional dislike of aural-oral work and invention of graphic equivalents. 4. A-LM for all students? Average student does best, intelligent student border? 5. Makes considerable demand on the teacher preparation drilling imagination. 6. Is order of presentation natural? 7. Does A-LM produce language illiterates -fluent speakers who cannot read or write? Possible remedies 1. Avoid dull drills -contextualize use variety. 2. Practice should be meaningful and point of drill should be explained to the learner and understood. 3. Time lag must vary according to situation - in some cases oral written work side be side. 4. Intelligent students should be told that practice makes perfect - hence importance of fluency, clarity and precision. 5. Order of presentation probably logical though analogy with child learner not relevant.

Adult is trained to think and use books dictionaries, but without first learning how to pronounce words he will not learn how to read well. 6. Experience showed that A-LM trainer learner did better is all skills than traditional counterpart except in writing.

Though the emphases at the beginning are strongly on listening and speaking, no devaluation of literature is implied.

It appears that mastery of sound system of a language is essential for efficient reading and for appreciation of literature.

One of the qualities that makes a work of literature great is the choice of words and phrases, and one of the factors that governs this choice is how they sound.

To read a work of literature without any idea of what it sounded like to the writer is to be as handicapped as the tone-deaf listening to music or the colour-blind looking at a painting. Losanovs Method or Suggestive Method Few methods have been met with claims ranging from sensational to skeptical mysterious and costly, a highly questionable new gimmick one critic has unkindly called it a package of pseudo-scientific gobbledygook and far remote from language teaching styles as language sleep learning, medative relaxation, electrical and sound impulses E. Davydova. Suggestopedia as G. Lozanov called his pedagogical application of The Science of Suggestology aims at neutralizing learning inibitions and de-suggesting false limitations that cultural norms impose on learning.

The suggestive method or Suggestopedia is a modification of direct method.

The originator of this method believes, as does Silent Way s Caleb Gattegno, that language learning can occur at a much faster rate than what ordinarily transpires. In G. Losanov s view the reason for the pupils inefficiency is that they set up psychological barriers that block the way to learning. They fear that they will be unable to perform, that they will be limited in the ability to learn, and finally fail. One result is that the learners full mental powers are not engaged.

According to G. Losanov and his proponents, only five per cent of the learners mental capacity is used. In order to make better use of the mental reserves the limitations, which they think we have, need to be desuggested. Suggestopedia, the application of the study of suggestion to pedagogy, has been developed to help students eliminate the feeling that they cannot be successful and, thereby, to help them overcome the barriers to learning. The behav

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Multiple Intelligences in the structure of a new English syllabus for secondary school

The theoretical value of the paper consists in using the results of the research in the EFL teaching. The practical value - a good opportunity of using at the lessons of English… It helps to achieve the best results in teaching English.

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Multiple intelligences in teaching English learners to the senior forms of secondary school
Multiple intelligences in teaching English learners to the senior forms of secondary school. Accepting Gardner s Theory of Multiple Intelligences has several implications for teachers in terms of c

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