Weak and strong forms of words - раздел Программирование, Практическая фонетика английского языка Function Words In English Are Generally Not Stressed, Unless There Is A Need ...
Function words in English are generally not stressed, unless there is a need for special contrast or prominence on them. So, when these words are unstressed they have their weakforms, but when they are stressed they have their strong forms.
An important feature of English pronunciation is weakening or reduction /rI'dAkSn/ of function words in an unstressed position in an utterance. These words show reductions in the length of sounds, weakening of vowels towards /q, I/ and disappearances of some vowels and consonants.
Why is it important to learn how weak forms are used? It is possible to use only strong forms in speaking, for example /xnd/ instead of /qnd/ or /wPz/ instead of /wqz/. There are two main reasons for using weak forms. Firstly, most native speakers of English find an ‘all-strong-form’ pronunciation unnatural and foreign-sounding. Secondly, and more importantly, speakers who are not familiar with the use of weak forms are likely to have difficulty understanding speakers who do use weak forms; since practically all native speakers of British English use them, learners of the language need to learn about these weak forms to help them to understand what they hear.
There are about 40 function words in English:
Word
| Strong form
| Weak form
| Examples
|
a
| eI
| q
| (before consonants)
| q *paVnd q *deI
|
an
| xn
| qn
| (before vowels)
| *hxv qn *xpl
|
the
| DJ
| Dq
Di or DJ
| (before consonants)
(before vowels)
| Dq *mL Dq *merIq
qt Di *eqpLt
|
and
| xnd
| qn
|
| *blxk qn *waIt
|
as
| xz
| qz
|
| qz *gVd qz *gqVld
|
but
| bAt
| bqt
|
| *gVd bqt Iks*pensIv
|
than
| Dxn
| Dqn
|
| *betq Dqn *evq
|
that
| Dxt
| Dqt
| (only in a relative clause)
| aI qd*mIt Dqt aI *dId It
|
there
| Deq
| Dq
| (as an indefinite adverb)
| Dq z q *bVk Pn Dq *teIbl
|
he
| hJ
| J
|
| *dId J *wIn
|
him
| hIm
| Im
|
| *lJv Im
|
his
| hIz
| Iz
|
| aI *laIk Iz *taI
|
her
| hE:
| E: or q
E:r or qr
| (before consonants)
(before vowels)
| *teIk q *hqVm
*teIk qr *aVt
|
them
| Dem
| Dqm
|
| *Jt Dqm
|
us
| As
| qs
s
|
(only in let’s)
| *raIt qs
*lets *dH It
|
you
| jH
| ju
|
| *wPt dq ju *TINk
|
at
| xt
| qt
|
| *kAm qt *wAns
|
for
| fL
| fq
fqr
| (before consonants)
(before vowels)
| *kAm fq *tJ
*kAm fqr q *mJl
|
from
| frPm
| frqm
|
| aI *keIm frqm *lAndqn
|
of
| Pv
| qv
|
| *mqVst qv *Ll
|
to
| tH
| tq
tH or tu
| (before consonants)
(before vowels)
| *traI tq *stPp
*taIm tu *Jt
|
some
| sAm
| sqm
| (meaning ‘an unspecified amount of’)
| aI *nJd sqm *peIpq
|
do
| dH
| dq
dH or du
| (before consonants)
(before vowels)
| *haV dq DeI *nqV
*haV du aI *nqV
|
does
| dAz
| dqz
|
| *wen dqz It q*raIv
|
am
| xm
| qm
m
|
| *waI qm aI *hIq
aI m *taIqd
|
are
| R
| q
qr
| (before consonants)
(before vowels)
| Dq *gE:lz q *prItI
Dq *men qr *AglI
|
is
| Iz
| s
z
| (after voiceless consonants)
(after vowels and voiced consonants)
| *Dxt s *faIn
*weq z *GPn
*GPn z *hIq
|
was
| wPz
| wqz
|
| Dq *weDq wqz *faIn
|
were
| wE:
| wq
wqr
| (before consonants)
(before vowels)
| DeI wq *leIt
DeI wer *JzI
|
be
| bJ
| bi or bI
|
| *dqVnt bi *rHd
|
just
| GAst
| Gqst
|
| Gqst bI*haInd
|
have
| hxv
| v
qv
| (after pronouns, as an auxiliary verb)
| DeI v *dAn It
Dq *men qv *gPn
|
has
| hxz
| qz
s
z
| (after s, z, S, Z, C, G)
(after other voiceless consonants)
(after vowels and voiced consonants)
| Dq *pleIs qz *CeInGd
*Gxk s *gPn
hJ z *gPn
*GPn z *gPn
|
had
| hxd
| d
qd
| (after pronouns)
| DeI d *left *hqVm
Dq *deI qd bJn *faIn
|
shall
| Sxl
| Sql or Sl
|
| aI Sl bi *krPs
|
should
| SVd
| Sqd
|
| aI Sqd fq*get It
|
will
| wIl
| l
ql
|
(after vowels and /l/)
| *DIs l *dH
Dq *gE:l ql *wIn
|
would
| wVd
| d
qd
| (after pronouns)
| *aI d *dH It
*GPn qd *dH It
|
can
| kxn
| kqn
|
| *haV kqn aI *help
|
could
| kVd
| kqd
|
| *hJ kqd *dH It
|
must
| mAst
| mqst
|
| aI mqst *tel Im
|
All these function words are in certain circumstances pronounced in their strong forms. It is important to remember that there are contexts where only the strong form must be used. There are some simple rules which we are to observe:
· whenever the function word is stressed it has its strong form:
/Dq *letqz *frPm *GPn nPt *tH *GPn/
· whenever the function word is at the end of an utterance:
/*Dxts *wPt aIm *fPnd Pv/
/*jH R/
· whenever it is cited or pronounced separately for some purpose:
/mAst/
· if the function word ends in a vowel and the following word begins with a vowel, the function word also has its strong form:
/tH Rsk/ or /DJ ADq/
But there are some exceptions. Pronouns he, him, his, her, them, us have their weak forms at the end of an utterance (unless they are stressed, of course). Also pronouns he, him, his, her, when found at the beginning of an utterance, are pronounced with an initial /h/.
There are some function words which always have their strong forms regardless whether they are stressed or not. These are:
on
| Pn
| Its Pn Dq *teIbl
|
off
| Pf
| *GAst Pf Dq *rqVd
|
in
| In
| Its In Dq *desk
|
not
| nPt
| aI *hqVp nPt
|
Also to this group we can refer the following words which can have their strong or weak forms according to their meaning in a sentence:
· have (when it is a main verb with the meaning ‘to possess’),
I have a *very *good *car. /hxv/
· do (when it is a main verb with the meaning ‘to make, to perform’),
He *always does his *best. /dAz/
· some (when it is an indefinite pronoun),
I *think some *animal *broke it. /sAm/
· that (when it is a demonstrative pronoun),
I must *answer that *letter. /Dxt/
· there (when it is an adverb of place),
He *went there to *study. /Deq/
Все темы данного раздела:
CONTENTS
Введение……………………………………………………………………...
Unit 1……………………………………………………………………….....
Organs of speech. Vowels and their classification. Consonants and their classification. Transcription
ФОРМЫ КОНТРОЛЯ
Программа предусматривает текущий контроль в форме письменных и устных тестов по всем темам, два устных коллоквиума в первом и втором семестрах, итоговые письменные тесты в каждом семестре и итогов
Нормы оценки
Письменные тесты оцениваются по десятибалльной системе (от 1 до 10), согласно которой 10 баллов выставляется при условии правильного выполнения 100-95% работы, а 3 балла соответствуют менее 69%(т.е
Фонетическая реализация английских гласных и согласных фонем
Коартикуляция и аллофоническое варьирование звуков в связной речи.
Аспирация глухих смычно-взрывных согласных [p, t, k].
Степени аспирации в зависимости от позиции согласных в сло
Слог, ударение, ритм
Понятие о слоге. Английские гласные в ударных и безударных слогах.
Редукция гласных и сохранение полного качества гласных в безударной позиции в слове.
Слогообразующая функция сон
Высотно-мелодическая (тональная) организация речи
Понятие об интонационной группе и тональном контуре. Элементы интонационной структуры.
Понятие о тоне. Статический и кинетический тоны. Терминальные тоны. Позиция ядерного тона во фразе.
Практические занятия
Наименование тем практических занятий и их содержание
Количество часов
1 курс 1 семестр
Organs of speech
All speech sounds of English are made with some movement of air when it moves out of the lungs/lANz/. We draw it into the lungs quickly and we release it slowly. The air pas
Vowels and their classification
Vowels/'vaVqlz/ are sounds in which there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips. They differ from each other in several ways. We need a
Consonants and their classification
Consonantsare sounds which are made by obstructing the flow of air at some point in our mouth.
1. They can be classified, first of all, according to the manner
Transcription
In any language we can identify a small number of regularly used sounds (vowels and consonants) that we call phonemes. We often use special symbols to represent speech sound
Self-check questions
1. What parts of the tongue do you know? What sounds are pronounced with the help of it?
2. Dwell on the vocal cords and their four main positions.
3. How many groups of consonant
FRONT AND BACK VOWELS
Lesson
Topic
Hours
References
Friction consonants.
Front and back vowels.
Friction consonants
Friction consonantsare consonants made by narrowing the air passage at some point in our mouth, and when the air escapes through this narrowing it makes a hissing sound (fricti
Front and back vowels
Jis long and tense. It is close and front: the front of the tongue is raised to a height slightly below and behind the front close position, the tongue
Lab work 2 English short vowels
Exercise 1 Repetition
Listen and repeat:
I
bit [bIt]
bid [bId]
him [hIm]
miss [mIs]
Lab work 6 Fricatives and affricates
Exercise 1 Repetition of words containing fricatives
Listen and repeat (words given in spelling and transcription):
f
fin [fIn]
off
Self-check questions
1. For what consonants is the friction the strongest?
2. Dwell on the position of the tongue for /s/ and /S/.
3. Compare the pronunciation of the vowels /A/ and /R/.
4. W
Personal questions
Where were you born?
I’d rather not say.
Where are you from?
I’d rather not say.
How tall are you?
How old are you?
How much do you weigh?
CLOSING DIPHTHONGS
Lesson
Topic
Hours
References
Stop consonants.
Central vowels.
Diphthongs.
Stop consonants
Stop consonants are consonants in which the air is completely blocked at some point in our mouth, then compressed, and then released with a slight explosion or a popping noise.
Central vowels
E:is long and tense. It is central, half-way between open and close: the centre of the tongue is raised between close-mid and open-mid, no firm contact
Diphthongs and their classification
A diphthong/'dIfTPN/ is a movement or glide from one vowel to another. A vowel which remains constant and does not glide is called a pure vowel. Diphtho
Closing diphthongs
The closingdiphthongs all end with a glide towards a closer vowel. Because the second part of the diphthong is weak, they often do not reach a position that could be called
Lab work 3 Long vowels
Exercise 1 Repetition
Listen and repeat:
J
beat [bJt]
bead [bJd]
been [bJn]
beef [bJf]
Lab work 4 Plosives
Exercise 1 Repetition of initial plosives
Each word begins with a fortis plosive; notice that the plosive is aspirated. Listen and repeat:
paw [pL]
Self-check questions
1. Describe the movement of your speech organs while pronouncing /C/.
2. What is aspiration? How can it be marked?
3. Name the differences in pronunciation of /E:/ and /q/.
Easy solutions
Gee, I’m hungry!
Have a sandwich.
Gee, I’m angry!
Calm down!
Gee, I’m sleepy!
Take a nap!
Gee, it’s chilly in here!
Put on a sweater.
CENTRING DIPHTHONGS
Lesson
Topic
Hours
References
Nasal consonants.
Diphthongs.
Nasal consonants
Nasal/'neIzql/ consonants are consonants for which the mouth is blocked at some point and all the air is forced to go through the nose. For all nasal co
Centring diphthongs
The centring diphthongs glide towards the vowel /q/ which is a central vowel.
Iqthe starting point is a little clo
TRIPHTHONGS
Lesson
Topic
Hours
References
Lateral consonant [l].
Triphthongs.
&nbs
Lateral consonant
Lateral/'lxtqrql/ consonant is the consonant /l/ for which the tongue tip blocks the centre of the mouth and the air goes over the sides of the to
Triphthongs
The most complex English sounds of the vowel type are the triphthongs/'trIfTPNz/. They consist of a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly
Lab work 3 Diphthongs and triphthongs
Exercise 6 Repetition
Listen and repeat, making sure that the second part of the diphthong is weak.
eI
mate [meIt]
made [meId]
Lab work 5 Revision
Exercise 1 Vowels and diphthongs
Listen and repeat:
R and E:
eI and e
aI and R
barn burn
are err
fast f
A bad day
I overslept and missed my train,
slipped on the sidewalk
in the pouring rain,
sprained my ankle,
skinned my knees,
broke my glasses,
lost my ke
GLIDING CONSONANTS
Lesson
Topic
Hours
References
Gliding consonants.
Gliding consonants
Gliding consonants are consonants with no stop or friction and which consist of a glide (a quick, smooth movement) towards a following vowel. We distinguish three gliding conso
Lab work 7 Further consonants
Exercise 1 Repetition of words containing a velar nasal
Listen and repeat; take care not to pronounce a plosive after the velar nasal.
hxN hxNq
sININ rPN
Major decisions
How do you like your coffee?
Black! Black!
How do you like your tea?
With lemon, please.
How do you like your steak?
Medium rare.
How do you li
CONSONANT CLUSTERS
Lesson
Topic
Hours
References
Consonant clusters.
Theoretical background
English speech is characterised by linking, that means that the sounds within a word and words within a phrase are pronounced together with no pause or interval between them. When we have two or mo
Initial consonant clusters
Initial two-consonant clusters are of two sorts in English:
1) /s/ followed by one of the following consonants /p, t, k, f, m, n, l, w, j/;
2) one of the consonan
Final consonant clusters
Sequences of consonants at the end of words are more varied than at the beginning mainly because /s, z/ are added to most nouns to make their plural forms, and /t, d/
Longer consonant sequences
In phrases one word may end with a consonant cluster and the next word may begin with another consonant cluster, so that longer sequences quite commonly occur. These may be clusters of three (he
Lab work 8 Consonant clusters
Exercise 1 Devoicing of [l, r, w, j]
When [l, r, w, j] follow [p, t, k] in syllable-initial position they are produced as voiceless, slightly fricative sounds. Listen and repeat:
Self-check questions
1. Match these questions on the left with the answers on the right. Underline consonant clusters and analyze them. Say the short conversations together with your partner.
Wh
Theoretical background
Every English word consists of one or more syllables. A syllable is a group of sounds that are pronounced together. Each syllable contains one vowel, and only one (diphthong
Word stress
There is no simple way of knowing which syllable or syllables in an English word must be stressed, but every time you learn a new word you must be sure to learn how it is stressed. The stress patte
Utterance stress
When we talk we do not talk in single words but in groups of words spoken continuously (utterances/'AtrqnsIz/), with no break or pause. We may make a pause after a word grou
Lab work 9 Weak syllables
Exercise 1 “Schwa” q
Listen and repeat:
Two-syllable words with weak first syllable and stress on the second syllable
about [q'baVt]
Lab work 10 Word stress
Exercise 1 Stress marking
When you hear the word, repeat it, then place a stress mark (') before the stressed syllable.
enImI enemy
sqbtrxkt sub
Lab work 11 Complex word stress
Exercise 1 Stress-carrying suffixes
When you hear the number, pronounce the word with stress on the suffix. You will then hear the correct pronunciation which you should repeat.
Lab work 12 Weak forms
Exercise 1 Sentences for transcription
Write the following sentences in transcription, taking care to give the correct weak forms (1…12).
Exercise 2 Weak fo
Lab work 13 Revision
Exercise 1 Reading unfamiliar words from transcription
The following are British place-names written in transcription. When you hear the number, say the word, making sure that the stres
Additional exercises
Exercise 1
How many syllables do these words have? One is done for you.
furniture……3 bought…… blackboard…… examination…… remember…… collect…… anybody…… please…… grandmother
Self-check questions
1. What types of word stress do you know?
2. What prepositions usually have strong forms?
3. What is a stress shift?
4. Speak on the usage of weak and strong forms of per
Theoretical background
The notion of rhythm /rIDm/ involves some event happening at regular intervals of time; one can detect the rhythm of a heart-beat or of a piece of music. It is often said that English speech is rhy
The beaches of Mexico
Have you ever seen the beaches of Mexico?
Have you ever walked the streets of San Juan?
Have you ever been to Haiti?
Have you ever been to Spain?
Have you ever w
FLUENCY
Lesson
Topic
Hours
References
Fluency
Linking
When you speak you must pay attention to saying utterances fluently, smoothly, with no gaps or hesitations in the middle. In English words are not separated from each
Alterations
These changes are based on practically similar mouth articulations which are the result of assimilatory tendencies, usually regressive. They involve changes of the place of articulation of a preced
Disappearances (elision)
Elision means the dropping of a sound or sounds, either within a word or at a junction of words. Elision is a feature of rapid colloquial speech, while formal speech tends to r
Self-check questions
Read the dialogue and analyze all types of linking. Mark the linking. Now practise the conversation, linking the words smoothly.
A: Ann’s just phoned. She and Diana are both on their way.
INTONATION
Lesson
Topic
Hours
References
Intonation
Intonation
What is intonation? No definition is completely satisfactory, but we must agree that the pitch of the voice plays the most important part. There are no languages which are s
Utterance and its structure
Speech is divided into short pieces which are pronounced without any breaks within them. These are called utterances. So an utteranceis a continuous piece of speech beginnin
Tune shapes
As it has been already said, when we pronounce an utterance the voice goes up and down and the different notes of the voice combine to make tunes. In English the tune belongs not to a single word b
The Glide-Down
In the shortest word groups, where we use just one important word, the falling tune consists of a fall in the voice from a fairly high pitch to a very low one. The fall is on the stressed syllable
The Glide-Up
The Glide-Up is just like the Glide-Down except that it ends with a rise in the voice instead of a fall. Both important and unimportant words before the rise are treated exactly
The Take-Off
This tune also ends with a rise in the voice, like the Glide-Up, but any words and syllables before the rise are low.
I was
The Dive
In its shortest form this tune consists of a fall rather high to low and then a rise to about the middle of the voice.
The usage of The Glide-Up
· We use the Glide-Down for statements which are complete and definite:
|| It was
The usage of the Glide-Up
· We use the Glide-Up in statements if they are intended to be soothing or encouraging:
|| I
The usage of the Take-Off
· We use the Take-Off in a statement if it is a grumble:
|| I did
The usage of the Dive
We use the Dive:
· in a statementif the statement is not complete but leading to a following word-group:
|| I
Lab work 15 Tones
Exercise 1 Repetition of tones
Listen and repeat:
Fall:
yes
Lab work 17 Intonation
Exercise 1 Repetition of the nucleus plus tail
Listen and repeat, taking care to continue the pitch movement of the tone over the tail:
Additional exercises
Exercise 1
Listen to these examples. Notice how the voice falls at the end.
It’s
Self-check questions
1. What is intonation?
2. Compare the head, the nucleus and the tail of the Take Off with the same components of the Glide Up.
3. Give the definition of an utterance.
4.
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