Theoretical background - раздел Программирование, Практическая фонетика английского языка The Notion Of Rhythm /ridm/ Involves Some Event Happening At Regular Interval...
The notion of rhythm /rIDm/ involves some event happening at regular intervals of time; one can detect the rhythm of a heart-beat or of a piece of music. It is often said that English speech is rhythmical, and that the rhythm in speech can be defined as regular occurrence of stressed syllables. It is not of course suggested that the timing is as regular as a clock – the regularity of occurrence is only relative.
English has stress-timed rhythm, that is stressed syllables tend to occur at relatively regular intervals regardless whether they are separated by unstressed syllables or not. So, the time from each stressed syllable to the next is approximately the same, irrespective of the number of intervening unstressed syllables.
All word groups or utterances can be divided into stressgroups. A stress group is formed by a stressed syllable with any unstressed syllables which may follow it. And the fundamental rule of English rhythm is this: each stress group within an utterance (or a word group) is given the same amount of time.
The shortest stress group consists of one stressed syllable without any unstressed ones following it. In this case the length of the syllable depends on the natural length of the vowel and the following consonant(s), if any.
/naV/ is a very long syllable because it has a diphthong and no following consonant;
/mHn/ is also very long because it has a long vowel followed by a weak consonant;
/wen/ is a little shorter because it has a short vowel, but it is made slightly longer by the following weak consonant;
/jes/ is the shortest of these syllables because it has a short vowel followed by a strong consonant which makes it a little shorter.
The stressed syllable may be followed by some unstressed syllables. But these unstressed syllables are not said very quickly; what happens is that the stressed syllable and the following unstressed syllable(s) share equally the amount of time which a single stressed syllable would have; so /*naIn/, /*naIntI/ and /*naIntIqT/ will be pronounced within the same period of time. And it happens like this: ( I••••••I – shows a period of time given for the pronunciation of each stress group)
| /*naIn/
| /*naIn - tI/
| /*naIn - tI - qT/
|
| I••••••I
| I••• - •••I
| I•• - •• - ••I
|
So, in /*naIn/ the stressed syllable is made rather long; in /*naIntI/ the stressed syllable and the unstressed syllable are equal in length and they are only half as long as the stressed syllable in /*naIn/; and in /*naIntIqT/ all three syllables have the same length and they are three times as short as the stressed syllable in /*naIn/.
If there are several stress groups in an utterance they are all given the same amount of time, too. For example, in /*lets *vIzIt *grxnmADq/ there are three stress groups and each of them is pronounced within the same time interval.
The stressed syllable may also have some unstressed syllables before it. These unstressed syllables are said very quickly, so they are all very short, as short as you can make them; but the stressed syllable is as long as before, so there is a great difference in length between the unstressed syllables and the stressed one (e.g. /aI m *hIq/; /aI wqz *hIq/; /aI wqz In *hIq/ - the stressed syllable is very long and unstressed syllables are very short).
A unit which has a stressed syllable as its centre and any unstressed syllables which may come before it and after it is called a rhythm unit. A rhythm unit is usually bigger than a stress group (because it also has unstressed syllables before the stressed one which a stress group has not). But sometimes they can coincide; it happens when there are no unstressed syllables before the stressed one.
In an utterance it is sometimes difficult to decide what words or syllables go together in a rhythm unit. There exist some rules:
1. Any unstressed syllables at the beginning of a word group must go together with the following stress group:
|| aIwqzIn*lAndqn || (I was in London)
2. If the unstressed syllable(s) is part of the same word as the stressed syllable they belong to the same rhythm unit:
|| *CJpq *feqz || (cheaper fares)
|| *CJp q*feqz || (cheap affairs)
3. If the unstressed syllable(s) is closely connected grammatically to the stressed word, although not a part of that word, they belong to the same rhythm unit:
|| *RskIm *tqdHIt || (ask him to do it)
4. Whenever you are in doubt as to which rhythm unit unstressed syllables belong to, put them after a stress rather than before it. So in He was older than me, if you are doubtful about /Dqn/, put it with /qVldq/ and not with /mJ/:
|| hJwqz*qVldqDqn *mJ ||
There is a tendency in English to avoid neighbouring stressed syllables. And in order not to place primary stresses on neighbouring syllables such phenomenon as stress shift takes place. When a word (simple or compound) has in isolation a primary stress preceded by a secondary stress, the primary stress may be moved to the syllable carrying secondary stress in isolation (e.g. 
thir
teen, but thirteen shillings; Japanese, but a Japanese doctor). It should be noted, too, that, when a strongly stressed syllable closely precedes, secondary stress may be lost (e.g. eight thirteen).
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CONTENTS
Введение……………………………………………………………………...
Unit 1……………………………………………………………………….....
Organs of speech. Vowels and their classification. Consonants and their classification. Transcription
ФОРМЫ КОНТРОЛЯ
Программа предусматривает текущий контроль в форме письменных и устных тестов по всем темам, два устных коллоквиума в первом и втором семестрах, итоговые письменные тесты в каждом семестре и итогов
Нормы оценки
Письменные тесты оцениваются по десятибалльной системе (от 1 до 10), согласно которой 10 баллов выставляется при условии правильного выполнения 100-95% работы, а 3 балла соответствуют менее 69%(т.е
Фонетическая реализация английских гласных и согласных фонем
Коартикуляция и аллофоническое варьирование звуков в связной речи.
Аспирация глухих смычно-взрывных согласных [p, t, k].
Степени аспирации в зависимости от позиции согласных в сло
Слог, ударение, ритм
Понятие о слоге. Английские гласные в ударных и безударных слогах.
Редукция гласных и сохранение полного качества гласных в безударной позиции в слове.
Слогообразующая функция сон
Высотно-мелодическая (тональная) организация речи
Понятие об интонационной группе и тональном контуре. Элементы интонационной структуры.
Понятие о тоне. Статический и кинетический тоны. Терминальные тоны. Позиция ядерного тона во фразе.
Практические занятия
Наименование тем практических занятий и их содержание
Количество часов
1 курс 1 семестр
Organs of speech
All speech sounds of English are made with some movement of air when it moves out of the lungs/lANz/. We draw it into the lungs quickly and we release it slowly. The air pas
Vowels and their classification
Vowels/'vaVqlz/ are sounds in which there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips. They differ from each other in several ways. We need a
Consonants and their classification
Consonantsare sounds which are made by obstructing the flow of air at some point in our mouth.
1. They can be classified, first of all, according to the manner
Transcription
In any language we can identify a small number of regularly used sounds (vowels and consonants) that we call phonemes. We often use special symbols to represent speech sound
Self-check questions
1. What parts of the tongue do you know? What sounds are pronounced with the help of it?
2. Dwell on the vocal cords and their four main positions.
3. How many groups of consonant
FRONT AND BACK VOWELS
Lesson
Topic
Hours
References
Friction consonants.
Front and back vowels.
Friction consonants
Friction consonantsare consonants made by narrowing the air passage at some point in our mouth, and when the air escapes through this narrowing it makes a hissing sound (fricti
Front and back vowels
Jis long and tense. It is close and front: the front of the tongue is raised to a height slightly below and behind the front close position, the tongue
Lab work 2 English short vowels
Exercise 1 Repetition
Listen and repeat:
I
bit [bIt]
bid [bId]
him [hIm]
miss [mIs]
Lab work 6 Fricatives and affricates
Exercise 1 Repetition of words containing fricatives
Listen and repeat (words given in spelling and transcription):
f
fin [fIn]
off
Self-check questions
1. For what consonants is the friction the strongest?
2. Dwell on the position of the tongue for /s/ and /S/.
3. Compare the pronunciation of the vowels /A/ and /R/.
4. W
Personal questions
Where were you born?
I’d rather not say.
Where are you from?
I’d rather not say.
How tall are you?
How old are you?
How much do you weigh?
CLOSING DIPHTHONGS
Lesson
Topic
Hours
References
Stop consonants.
Central vowels.
Diphthongs.
Stop consonants
Stop consonants are consonants in which the air is completely blocked at some point in our mouth, then compressed, and then released with a slight explosion or a popping noise.
Central vowels
E:is long and tense. It is central, half-way between open and close: the centre of the tongue is raised between close-mid and open-mid, no firm contact
Diphthongs and their classification
A diphthong/'dIfTPN/ is a movement or glide from one vowel to another. A vowel which remains constant and does not glide is called a pure vowel. Diphtho
Closing diphthongs
The closingdiphthongs all end with a glide towards a closer vowel. Because the second part of the diphthong is weak, they often do not reach a position that could be called
Lab work 3 Long vowels
Exercise 1 Repetition
Listen and repeat:
J
beat [bJt]
bead [bJd]
been [bJn]
beef [bJf]
Lab work 4 Plosives
Exercise 1 Repetition of initial plosives
Each word begins with a fortis plosive; notice that the plosive is aspirated. Listen and repeat:
paw [pL]
Self-check questions
1. Describe the movement of your speech organs while pronouncing /C/.
2. What is aspiration? How can it be marked?
3. Name the differences in pronunciation of /E:/ and /q/.
Easy solutions
Gee, I’m hungry!
Have a sandwich.
Gee, I’m angry!
Calm down!
Gee, I’m sleepy!
Take a nap!
Gee, it’s chilly in here!
Put on a sweater.
CENTRING DIPHTHONGS
Lesson
Topic
Hours
References
Nasal consonants.
Diphthongs.
Nasal consonants
Nasal/'neIzql/ consonants are consonants for which the mouth is blocked at some point and all the air is forced to go through the nose. For all nasal co
Centring diphthongs
The centring diphthongs glide towards the vowel /q/ which is a central vowel.
Iqthe starting point is a little clo
TRIPHTHONGS
Lesson
Topic
Hours
References
Lateral consonant [l].
Triphthongs.
&nbs
Lateral consonant
Lateral/'lxtqrql/ consonant is the consonant /l/ for which the tongue tip blocks the centre of the mouth and the air goes over the sides of the to
Triphthongs
The most complex English sounds of the vowel type are the triphthongs/'trIfTPNz/. They consist of a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly
Lab work 3 Diphthongs and triphthongs
Exercise 6 Repetition
Listen and repeat, making sure that the second part of the diphthong is weak.
eI
mate [meIt]
made [meId]
Lab work 5 Revision
Exercise 1 Vowels and diphthongs
Listen and repeat:
R and E:
eI and e
aI and R
barn burn
are err
fast f
A bad day
I overslept and missed my train,
slipped on the sidewalk
in the pouring rain,
sprained my ankle,
skinned my knees,
broke my glasses,
lost my ke
GLIDING CONSONANTS
Lesson
Topic
Hours
References
Gliding consonants.
Gliding consonants
Gliding consonants are consonants with no stop or friction and which consist of a glide (a quick, smooth movement) towards a following vowel. We distinguish three gliding conso
Lab work 7 Further consonants
Exercise 1 Repetition of words containing a velar nasal
Listen and repeat; take care not to pronounce a plosive after the velar nasal.
hxN hxNq
sININ rPN
Major decisions
How do you like your coffee?
Black! Black!
How do you like your tea?
With lemon, please.
How do you like your steak?
Medium rare.
How do you li
CONSONANT CLUSTERS
Lesson
Topic
Hours
References
Consonant clusters.
Theoretical background
English speech is characterised by linking, that means that the sounds within a word and words within a phrase are pronounced together with no pause or interval between them. When we have two or mo
Initial consonant clusters
Initial two-consonant clusters are of two sorts in English:
1) /s/ followed by one of the following consonants /p, t, k, f, m, n, l, w, j/;
2) one of the consonan
Final consonant clusters
Sequences of consonants at the end of words are more varied than at the beginning mainly because /s, z/ are added to most nouns to make their plural forms, and /t, d/
Longer consonant sequences
In phrases one word may end with a consonant cluster and the next word may begin with another consonant cluster, so that longer sequences quite commonly occur. These may be clusters of three (he
Lab work 8 Consonant clusters
Exercise 1 Devoicing of [l, r, w, j]
When [l, r, w, j] follow [p, t, k] in syllable-initial position they are produced as voiceless, slightly fricative sounds. Listen and repeat:
Self-check questions
1. Match these questions on the left with the answers on the right. Underline consonant clusters and analyze them. Say the short conversations together with your partner.
Wh
Theoretical background
Every English word consists of one or more syllables. A syllable is a group of sounds that are pronounced together. Each syllable contains one vowel, and only one (diphthong
Word stress
There is no simple way of knowing which syllable or syllables in an English word must be stressed, but every time you learn a new word you must be sure to learn how it is stressed. The stress patte
Utterance stress
When we talk we do not talk in single words but in groups of words spoken continuously (utterances/'AtrqnsIz/), with no break or pause. We may make a pause after a word grou
Weak and strong forms of words
Function words in English are generally not stressed, unless there is a need for special contrast or prominence on them. So, when these words are unstressed they have their weak
Lab work 9 Weak syllables
Exercise 1 “Schwa” q
Listen and repeat:
Two-syllable words with weak first syllable and stress on the second syllable
about [q'baVt]
Lab work 10 Word stress
Exercise 1 Stress marking
When you hear the word, repeat it, then place a stress mark (') before the stressed syllable.
enImI enemy
sqbtrxkt sub
Lab work 11 Complex word stress
Exercise 1 Stress-carrying suffixes
When you hear the number, pronounce the word with stress on the suffix. You will then hear the correct pronunciation which you should repeat.
Lab work 12 Weak forms
Exercise 1 Sentences for transcription
Write the following sentences in transcription, taking care to give the correct weak forms (1…12).
Exercise 2 Weak fo
Lab work 13 Revision
Exercise 1 Reading unfamiliar words from transcription
The following are British place-names written in transcription. When you hear the number, say the word, making sure that the stres
Additional exercises
Exercise 1
How many syllables do these words have? One is done for you.
furniture……3 bought…… blackboard…… examination…… remember…… collect…… anybody…… please…… grandmother
Self-check questions
1. What types of word stress do you know?
2. What prepositions usually have strong forms?
3. What is a stress shift?
4. Speak on the usage of weak and strong forms of per
The beaches of Mexico
Have you ever seen the beaches of Mexico?
Have you ever walked the streets of San Juan?
Have you ever been to Haiti?
Have you ever been to Spain?
Have you ever w
FLUENCY
Lesson
Topic
Hours
References
Fluency
Linking
When you speak you must pay attention to saying utterances fluently, smoothly, with no gaps or hesitations in the middle. In English words are not separated from each
Alterations
These changes are based on practically similar mouth articulations which are the result of assimilatory tendencies, usually regressive. They involve changes of the place of articulation of a preced
Disappearances (elision)
Elision means the dropping of a sound or sounds, either within a word or at a junction of words. Elision is a feature of rapid colloquial speech, while formal speech tends to r
Self-check questions
Read the dialogue and analyze all types of linking. Mark the linking. Now practise the conversation, linking the words smoothly.
A: Ann’s just phoned. She and Diana are both on their way.
INTONATION
Lesson
Topic
Hours
References
Intonation
Intonation
What is intonation? No definition is completely satisfactory, but we must agree that the pitch of the voice plays the most important part. There are no languages which are s
Utterance and its structure
Speech is divided into short pieces which are pronounced without any breaks within them. These are called utterances. So an utteranceis a continuous piece of speech beginnin
Tune shapes
As it has been already said, when we pronounce an utterance the voice goes up and down and the different notes of the voice combine to make tunes. In English the tune belongs not to a single word b
The Glide-Down
In the shortest word groups, where we use just one important word, the falling tune consists of a fall in the voice from a fairly high pitch to a very low one. The fall is on the stressed syllable
The Glide-Up
The Glide-Up is just like the Glide-Down except that it ends with a rise in the voice instead of a fall. Both important and unimportant words before the rise are treated exactly
The Take-Off
This tune also ends with a rise in the voice, like the Glide-Up, but any words and syllables before the rise are low.
I was
The Dive
In its shortest form this tune consists of a fall rather high to low and then a rise to about the middle of the voice.
The usage of The Glide-Up
· We use the Glide-Down for statements which are complete and definite:
|| It was
The usage of the Glide-Up
· We use the Glide-Up in statements if they are intended to be soothing or encouraging:
|| I
The usage of the Take-Off
· We use the Take-Off in a statement if it is a grumble:
|| I did
The usage of the Dive
We use the Dive:
· in a statementif the statement is not complete but leading to a following word-group:
|| I
Lab work 15 Tones
Exercise 1 Repetition of tones
Listen and repeat:
Fall:
yes
Lab work 17 Intonation
Exercise 1 Repetition of the nucleus plus tail
Listen and repeat, taking care to continue the pitch movement of the tone over the tail:
Additional exercises
Exercise 1
Listen to these examples. Notice how the voice falls at the end.
It’s
Self-check questions
1. What is intonation?
2. Compare the head, the nucleus and the tail of the Take Off with the same components of the Glide Up.
3. Give the definition of an utterance.
4.
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