§ 498. The principal clauses of complex sentences are usually not classified, though their meanings are not neutral with regard to the meanings of the subordinate clauses.
Cf. He will come because he needs your help. He will come i f he needs your help.
§ 499. Two criteria are most often used in classifying the subordinate clauses of complex sentences: meaning and com-binability. When he came is a clause of time according to the meaning imparted by when.
E. g. When he came, it was already late.
But in the sentence / know when he came the same clause is considered objective owing to its subordination to the objective verb know.
§ 500. There are two ways of using the criterion of com-binability. Either subordinate clauses are classified in accordance with their relation to the word of the principal clause they are attached to, or they are likened to some part of speech with similar combinability. In the sentences When he came is of no importance, I remember when he came the combinability of the subordinate clause resembles that of a noun.
Cf. The fact is of no importance, I remember the fact.
Therefore the clause When he came is considered a n î u n-clause. If classified in accordance with its relation to the predicate verb, the first clause would be called a s u b j e ñ t clause and the second an object clause.
Similarly in This is the man who wishes to see you the subordinate clause may be regarded as an a d j e ñ t i v e clause in accordance with its own combinability, or as an a t t r i b-u t i v e clause, since its head-word is a noun.
§ 501. Each of the criteria described has its advantages and disadvantages. But in syntax, it seems, the correlation with the parts of the sentence is preferable to the correlation with the parts of speech. We shall therefore classify the subordinate clauses into groups parallel to the parts of the simple sentence. Accordingly we shall distinguish subject clauses,
complement clauses (predicative, objective, and adverbial)» attributive clauses, extension clauses and parenthetical clauses.
§ 502. Subordinate clauses are connected with the principal clause by conjunctions, conjunctive and relative pronouns or asyndetically.
E. g. I have been thinking of Cambridge all through dinner,, after (a conjunction) Martin had mentioned a friend of mine who (a relative pronoun) had been killed that spring. (Snow).
He seemed to be asking what (a conjunctive pronoun) was the matter with me. (Ib.).
Mauntenay asked me i f (a conjunction) / was satisfied with the way (asyndetic subordination) / have spent my life. (Ib.)-
§ 503. In connection with the structure of the complex sentence and the means of subordination in it, it is necessary to dwell on the so-called 'sequence of tenses' which is often treated as a formal feature of the complex sentence J, a device of subordination. The rule of the sequence of tenses is usually defined as follows: If the predicate verb of the principal clause is in the present or the future tense, the predicate verb of the subordinate clause may be used in any tense required by the sense. If the predicate verb of the principal clause is in the past tense, the verb of the subordinate clause must be used in the past tense too 2.
The regularity is supposed to be mostly or exclusively characteristic of object subordinate clauses 3.
As shown in Morphology (§ 233) the so-called sequence of tenses is a morphological problem, not a syntactical one, inasmuch as the past tense forms in the subordinate clauses are used in accordance with the grammatical meanings they express. The following Russian example will help to see it.
/7 òåáå âñå ðàññêàæó, êîãäà ïðèåäó.
Here the predicate verbs in the principal and in the subordinate clause are both representatives of future tense gram~
1 See, for instance, O. Jespersen Essentials of English Grammar,
N. Y., 1938, p. 261.
2 Ë. Ñ. Á a p x ó ä à ð î â, Ä. À. Ø ò å ë è í ã, op cit., p. 407.
3 See Â Í Æ è ã à ä ë î, È. Ï. È â à í î â à, Ë. Ë. È î ô è ê,
op. cit., p. 323.
memes. In the corresponding English sentence there would be a future tense verb only in the principal clause// shall tell you everything when I come.
Now from the point of view of an Englishman the future tense in the Russian subordinate clause might be regarded as depending on the future tense of the principal clause, as a means of subordination, and a certain rule of the sequence of the future tenses in Russian might be formulated.
There is no need, however, to look for any syntactical explanation of the use of the future tense verb in the Russian subordinate clause. It is used there in accordance with its meaning since it denotes an action taking place after the moment of speech.
What does need accounting for is the 'future tense' meaning of the present tense grammeme come in the English subordinate clause. Here we cannot do without syntax. We must state that in certain syntactical surroundings (see § 257) a present tense grarnmeme may acquire a 'future tense' meaning.
We may see something similar in the following two sentences.
He b e g a n to wonder what she was doing, how his children were getting along. (Dreiser). „ Îí ñòàë çàäóìûâàòüñÿ íàä òåì, ÷òî îíà ïîäåëûâàåò, êàê æèâóò åãî äåòè.
In the English sentence each 'past tense' verb refers to the past and is used in accordance with its tense meaning. So there is no need for any theory of the 'sequence of tenses' to account for their usage.
It is not so in the Russian sentence. The 'present tense' verbs ïîäåëûâàåò and æèâóò have acquired a 'past tense' meaning under the influence of the past tense of ñòàë in the principal clause.So it is in the Russian sentence that subordination is also shown by the relation of the tense meanings in the subordinate clause to those in the principal one.
§ 504. That the'sequence of tenses' in English is not merely a formal device, the agreement of the tense in the subordinate clause with that of the principal clause, is proved by numerous deviations from the rules of sequence.
E. g. Did she know that lam her father"? (Shaw). Yesterday he learned that he i s not a member of the Council. (Daily Worker).
It published a cartoon designed to suggest that Mrs. Knight's teaching will l è ï d a young man in the dock. (Ib.)
There is no agreement in tense in the examples given above simply because all the verbs are used in accordance with their tense meanings.
§ 505. However, it cannot be denied that the clauses of a complex sentence are for the most part united by the same time background. Very often it is the tense of the principal clause that shows that background. The events mentioned in the subordinate clause may be presented as unfolding against that background, as valid or important for that period of time. Only in this sense can we speak of the accord of tenses in the complex sentence. This accord can be observed not only in complex sentences with object subordinate clauses, as stated by some linguists, but in complex sentences with various types of subordinate clauses:
That she k n e w of his weakness was not believed for a moment. (Braddon) (a subject clause).
What he ò e a n t was that he was sorry. (Dickens) (a subject and a predicative clause).
We were sure he w î è I d understand it when the time came round. (Daily Worker) (an extension clause, and an adverbial clause of time).
She was convinced he w a s failing in his duty as he d i d not possess a great reputation. (Black) (an object clause and an adverbial clause of cause).
They said I could apply for a second week if the doctor sent in a certificate. (Gilbert) (an object'clause and an adverbial clause of condition).
Girl or no girl he d i d not want one that was not pretty. (Dreiser) (an attributive clause).
§ 506. The mood of the predicate verb of a subordinate clause depends on the principal clause to a greater extent than its tense.
As noted (§ 296), certain types of principal clauses are e^nmonly correlated with the subjunctive mood in the subordinate clauses.
a) Clauses denoting subjective appraisal.
E. g. It is advisable that she be left in ignorance of the facts for a little while. (Stevenson).
It was essential that I s ho è I d have a seat in the lower chamber. (Trollope). Incredible that she should never give him a chance to show that she had really loved him. (Galsworthy).
b) Clauses containing verbs and nouns denoting suggestion, demand, recommendation, insistence, perplexity, doubt, fear, anxiety, wish, etc.
He insisted that the boy remain in bed. (Cronin).
The demand that tliey should be forwarded to the company's office came at midnight. (The Worker).
At that moment she wished that she had not sent for him. (Eliot).
There is usually mood concord in conditional sentences.
E. g. If Savina were with him at this moment, his doubts and loneliness would evaporate. (Wilson). (Subjunctive, in both clauses.) // she wanted to do anything better or move higher she must have more — a great deal more. (Dreiser). (Indicative, in both clauses.)
Subject Clauses
§ 507. The subject clause is the only one used in the function of a primary part of the sentence.
The peculiarity of the subject clause is its inalienability from the principal clause. Thus in the sentence What you mean is clear the subordinate clause What you mean is used as the subject. If it is cut off from the rest of the sentence, what remains (is clear) cannot be treated as a clause either in meaning or in structure. It is synsemantic l in the sense that it can be understood only in combination with its subordinate part.
§ 508. Subject clauses are introduced by conjunctions (if, whether, that), conjunctive pro-nouns (who, which, what, whose, whichever, whoever, whatever, etc.) and pro-adverbs (how, when, where, why).
Why she left Mm is a mystery. (Jerome).
1 E  Ãóëû ã à. Ìåñòî ñëîæíîïîä÷èíåííîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ â ñèñòåìå ñèíòàêñèñà «Íàó÷íûå äîêëàäû âûñøåé øêîëû, Ôèëîëîãè÷åñêèå íàóêè», 1961, ¹ 3, ð. 17.