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ПРАКТИЧЕСКАЯ ФОНЕТИКА АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА - раздел Иностранные языки, ...
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ПРАКТИЧЕСКАЯ ФОНЕТИКА
АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА
Мплдбс
IllJIC 81.2Лнгл-923 1169
M.A. СОКОЛОВА, К.П. ГИНТОВТ, Л.А. КАНТЕР, Н.И. КРЫЛОВА, И.О. ТИХОНОВА, Г.А. ШАБАДАШ
Рецензенты:
кафедра фонетики английского языка Московского
ордена Дружбы народов государственного педагогического
института иностранных языков имени Мориса Тореза
(зав. кафедрой д-р филол. наук A.M. Антипова);
канд. филол. наук, доц. Э.Г. Курятиикова *
(Горьковский педагогический институт
иностранных языков имени Н.А. Добролюбова)
Практическая фонетика английского языка: Учеб. для студ. П69 высш. учеб. заведений. — М.: Гу манит, изд. центр ВЛАДОС, 2001. — 384 с: ил. ISBN 5-691-00694-0.
Учебник представляет собой нормативный курс фонетики английского языка. Цель учебника — формирование навыков правильного английского произношения и профессиональной ориентации студентов, т. е. обучение студентов тому, как использовать полученные знания и умения в дальнейшей педагогической деятельности.
Учебник состоит из теоретической части, где излагаются основные моменты теории фонетики английского языка, и практической, включающей упражнения, направленные на закрепление и практическое усвоение материала.
ВБК 81.2Англ-923
© Коллектив авторов, 2000
© Гуманитарный издательский
центр «ВЛАДОС», 2000
4 © Серийное оформление обложки.
Гуманитарный издательский
ISBN 5-691-00694-0 центр «ВЛАДОС», 2001
INTRODUCTION .—„——„^^
The practical course in English phonetics is meant for the students of English faculties who are to become teachers of English. This book is definitely not for beginners. It is best suited for the students who studied English at school and have already taken a corrective course in pronunciation at the Institute. The purpose of the present course is to help the students to develop their own pronunciation habits and to enable them to teach English pronunciation to others.
This book is primarily concerned with the phonetic system of English which consists of the following four components: speech sounds, the syllabic structure of words, word stress, and intonation (prosody). These four components constitute what is called the pronunciation of English.
All the four above-mentioned components of pronunciation are treated from the point of view of their articulatory or acoustic aspects and linguistic functions.
The course is based on the type of English pronunciation which is known as 'Received Pronunciation' (RP). Received Pronunciation is, in a way, an abstraction, an ideal. It seems to stand above all kinds of English pronunciation within or without Great Britain. But the fact that it has been thoroughly described in linguistic literature, and seems to be easily understood throughout the English-speaking world traditionally makes it a convenient teaching norm for foreigners. We make no attempt to treat such variants of pronunciation as would be natural in the speech of a native speaker, i. e. the various dialectal, regional, social and personal differences.
The authors of the book have adopted the guiding principal according to which the teaching material should be linguistically true. We have done our best to take into account all the achieve-
ments of Soviet and foreign linguistics which could serve the purpose of teaching English pronunciation.
It has been our conviction that large categories of speech difficulties including pronunciation could be overcome in the course of a comparative study of the phonetic systems of English and Russian. Unfortunately the research in this field, syllable structure and intonation in particular, has fallen far behind the practical demand. Nevertheless, the comparative principle was followed in this book wherever possible.
Phonetics may be considered the grammar of pronunciation. To succeed in making English sounds and intonation perfect you will need to know exactly how to make them. Together with the sharpness of your ear and your ability as an imitator the knowledge of how to produce correct sounds and intonation and how to apply them in speech will provide the desirable effect.
We realize the fact that a teacher of English must be able to pronounce isolated sounds and know how to treat them in different phonetic contexts. If you wish to understand and be understood in English you are to make a clear distinction between consonant and especially vowel sounds with absolute accuracy. But preoccupation with clarity of articulation bears little relationship to the special problem of natural speech. A learner of English must also form a new habit of syllabic formation, weakening of unstressed vowels in connection with particular speech rhythms and intonation patterns and the like. That is why the exercises provided are made up not only of individual words but also of entire sentences and even syntactic wholes.
Standard English falls into a number of functional styles having, of course, some central points of resemblance. The difference between functional styles brings about quite distinct types of pronunciation which primarily affects the system of intonation. We are firmly convinced that the study of pronunciation requires a stylistic approach. No piece of English fiction, for instance, can be reproduced aloud in a manner typical of the so-called 'Weather-in-England' style of English prosody.
The course encompasses explanations, rules, questions, tasks and exercises. If skilfully introduced it can have great value as a means of progressing gradually from the conscious to unconscious control of a feature of pronunciation.
Throughout the text laboratory exercises are included, and suggestions are made as to how the instructor and the students
can strengthen this course by the use of various types of recording and playback equipment.
We realize that explanation, imitation drills including those done at the laboratory are the foundation of this course. But there is no substitute for extensive practice under conditions approaching those of everyday life as nearly as possible. No text book, no amount of analytical work can fully supply this need. Every teacher must take his chance of creating such conditions at the lesson whenever possible.
We have thoroughly examined the errors made by Russian learners and established those which must be attacked first. They are the so-called 'phonological' mistakes which affect the meaning, cf
Are you fond of walkinghere? Are you fond of workinghere?
Phonological mistakes in intonation can be most commonly traced in the substitution of one nuclear tone by another, in the wrong position of the nuclear tone etc, cf
Isn't she un,well? Isn't she unvwell?
[general question) (exclamation)
It's xTom's fault. It's ^Tom's xfault.
The other type of mistakes is called phonetic. In this case the meaning is not affected. For example, the vowel (i:] is too long before a fortis consonant, but the quality of the sound is not modified: seat pronounced not as [siJtJ, but as [si:t].
Mistakes can be also qualified as phonetic when an English sound is completely or partially substituted by a similar Russian sound, eg the word seat is pronounced as [sm].
In teaching intonation phonetic mistakes can be easily detected in the wrong reproduction of the English pitch changes, rhythm, etc.
We never forget that this book is meant for those who are to teach English. The system of the theoretical and the practical parts of the course is therefore aimed at developing professional skills and habits.
How much time would be required for completion of the course such as is described in this book? Ideally, not less than four instructional hours per week for four terms and two hours per week for two last terms would not be excessive.
If this time is not available, the authors would probably omit those practical parts of the course which are not concerned with the common drawbacks of the students' pronunciation. These parts could be used for individual training. The work at the considerable amount of the theoretical course can be easily controlled by means of special written tests, done out of class.
Vital as laboratory work is, it is also time-consuming. That is why the hours devoted to it should be strictly limited and the system of laboratory exercises carefully thought over.
It must be said in conclusion that teaching pronunciation we must not neglect such 'non-verbal' elements as facial expression and gesture. The necessity of it can be proved by the fact that the actor in radio plays usually has to use a much wider range of intonation means than he normally would when visible to his audience, in order to compensate for the loss of what is contributed through the eye to the total effect. We certainly need much more information than we have before we can say in detail how facial expression and gesture should be brought into the teaching process. Nevertheless we would recommend that gestures and facial expression should never contradict intonation.
The authors send a vote of thanks to the Department of Phonetics (Moscow State Pedagogical Institute of Foreign Languages) headed by professor A.M.Antipova as well as to E.G.Kuryatnikova, Reader in Phonetics (State Pedagogical Institute of Foreign Languages, Gorky) for their helpful comments and corrections.
The Production of Speech
I
correct breathing increases its capacity, filling the lower part of the lungs with air as well. That is 'deep breathing', so necessary for correct speaking. To master it you should do the following exercises properly every day for two weeks until the normal capacity of the lungs has been reached. Make progress slowly.
ARTICULATION EXERCISES
Fig. 12.
b)
The Sounds of Speech
■ ■
The Classification of English Consonants According to the Place of
K.9).
They are occlusive because a complete obstruction to the stream of air is formed, they are stops because the breath is stopped at some point of articulation and then released with an explosion that is why they are also called plosives.
Note: Since there is only one focus of articulation, the stops are unicentral pronounced with a flat narrowing.
Place of Articulation.Stops are bilabial [p, bj, produced with both lips pressed together; forelingual, apical alveolar (t, d], produced with the tip of the tongue against the teeth ridge; backlingual, velar [k , g], produced with the back part of the tongue against the soft palate.
Force of Articulation,[p, t, k]are strong or fortis as they are pronounced with more muscular energy and a stronger breath effort than [b, d, g] which are weak or lenis.
Voicing, [b, d, g] may be fully voiced in word initial position before a vowel as in bag, dog, got or in intervocalic positions as in rubber, leader, eager. In these cases the vocal cords are drawn together and vibrate.
In word final position they are partly devoiced: [b. d, g] as in rob [rob], bed [bed], log [tog], [p, t, k] are voiceless as the vocal cords are kept apart and do not vibrate.
F;or changes in connected speech see Chapter III. 32
plosives
According to the work of the vocal cords | Voiced | Voiceless | Voiced | Voiceless | V | |||||||
According to the force of articulation | weak (lenis) | strong (fortis) | weak (lenis) | strong (fortis) | w (l | |||||||
According to the place of articulation | Labial | bilabial | b 6, 6' | P П, П' | ||||||||
labio-dental | V в, в' | f Ф.Ф' | ||||||||||
Ungual | fore-lingual | interdental | apical | d | ||||||||
dental | apical | |||||||||||
dorsal | A. A' | T, ,T' | 3, 3' | с, с' | ||||||||
alveolar | apical | d | t | z | s |
о | ъ., Q. | Oral | |||||
о> | ь. | ' | _•-' | ||||
' | e? | Nasal | |||||
Г-» | •та. | V | Oral | ||||
(О | .« | ||||||
ю | - | Ш, Ml' | -C | ||||
-г | « | ■K | |||||
г> | |||||||
CN | |||||||
- | cacuminal | apical | dorsal | palatal | velar | Glottal | According to the position of the soft palate |
poist-alveolar | palato-alveolar | ||||||
fore-lingual | medio-lingual | 1 back-lingual | |||||
Ungual | |||||||
According to the place of articulation |
The Position of the Soft Palate.Stops are oral, because the soft palate is raised and the air goes through the mouth.
Aspiration,[p, t, k] in initial position in a stressed syllable are accompanied by aspiration, i. e. a strong puff of breath in avoiceless interval after the explosion of [p, t, kj before avowel. The Russian [п, т, к] are produced with less energy, thereforeno aspiration accompanies their pronunciation. Aspirationis very strong before, a long vowel or a diphthong as in porf, talk, cart, poke, take, Kate; it is weaker before a short vowel as in pit, top, cut. It is less noticeable before an unstressed vowel,as in proper, porter, poker or in final positions (i. e. preceding silence) as in lip, put, cook. If stops are preceded by [s] there is hardly any aspiration at all as in speech, stop, school.
Length of Preceding Vowels.Vowels closed by strong (fortis) stops are shorter than those followed by weak (lenis) ones, cf rib — rip, feed — feet, bag — back.
Palatalization.English stops are not palatalized, but before front, close or mid-open vowels they are a bit clearer than before back vowels, cf part — Pete, top — tip, door— day.
Russian students of English sometimes palatalize consonants before front and mixed vowels [i:, i, e, as, з:) because of the habit • of doing so in the native language. In Russian there is a palatalized consonant series before front high and mid-open vowels. In their articulation the front part of the tongue is raised to the. hard palate, forming a front secondary focus thus palatalizing them, cf мыл — мил. Learners of English also raise the front part of the tongue pronouncing the English consonants before these vowels. To avoid this they must remember that the front part of the tongue should be raised only when the articulation of the consonant is accomplished.
Table 7
Fig. 16.
Fig. 17.
Voice
Articulation. 1. The lips are firmly kept together.
2. The soft palate is raised and the air coming into the mouth stops for some time and then breaks the obstruction with a slight explosion.
3. The vocal cords do not vibrate when (p) is produced. For (b] they are tense kept together and vibrate when (bj occurs before vowels or in intervocalic positions, eg begin, rubber.
4. The breath effort is very strong for [pj, for (bj it is weak.
i Recommendations.1. Start with Articulation Exercise II, 10. 2. Press your lips together and push the air through the mouth breaking the obstruction made by the lips.
3. Make the sound [p] strong and aspirated. It means there is a little puff of breath, i.e. a slight [h] sound just after the explosion, eg [pha:t, phci, pho:k].
Allophones . The partially devoiced weak [b] occurs in word final positions, eg cab, rib.
Comparison with the Russian [п, б, п б'].The Russian consonants (n, 6] are mainly pronounced in the same way, but the lips are not so tense as for the English [p, b]. The Russian [nj is not aspirated. In word final positions only [n] is heard, eg дуб, гриб, while the English [b] is partially devoiced, cf клуб — club.
The palatalized Russian consonants [п б'] are formed with the front secondary focus, i. e. the front part of the tongue israised to the hard palate. The oppositions of the Russian sounds [n — п', б — б'] may distinguish the meaning of words, eg баки — бяки, об — Обь.
Possible Mistakes. 1.Russian learners of English often replace the English (p, b) by the Russian [n, 6]. This is a phonetic mistake. To avoid it the lips for the English consonants should be pressed together more energetically. When [p] is pronounced care should be taken to make it strong and aspirated.
2. Russian students can easily palatalize [p, b] before front or mixed close and mid-open vowels. This is also a phonetic mistake. One must be careful to raise the front part of the tongue to the hard palate only after the articulation of [p, b] is accomplished.
3. If Russians fully voice [b] in word final positions they should take care to make the sound rather weak. The mistake is phonetic.
4. To avoid the complete devoicing of the final [bj (a phonological mistake) care should be taken to make the sound partially voiced but still rather weak.
Word contrast practice is very useful here to show the difference in meaning:
rip — rib, cap — cab, rope — robe, tap — tab
[t, d] occur in word initial, word medial and word final positions jt] — spelt "t, tt, th, ed", eg take, attend, Thomas, jumped, put [d] — spelt "d, dd", eg dog, date, middle, leader, mad, raised
For most subsidiary allophones see Chapters "Modification of Sounds in Connected Speech".
t^
Fig. 18.
Fig. 20
A
(f, v] occur in word initial, word medial and word final positions. jf] — spelt "f, ff, ph, gh", eg fat, photo, definite, sniff, enough jv] — spelt "v, f, ph", eg vast, cover, brave, of, nephew ■
6, 7, 9.
2. Put the lower lip close to the edge of the upper front teeth and blow breath between them. For [fj the friction should be strong but not very noisy; for [v] it should be weak.
3. Keep the upper lip out of the way.
Allophones.The partially devoiced [v] occurs in word final positions, eg leave, drive, give.
Comparison with the Russian [ф, в, ф в'].The Russian [ф, в] are produced in the same way, only (ф) is less fricative, cf flag, флаг. In word final position only [ф] is heard, eg Ростов, актив.
The Russian palatalized [ф в'] have the secondary obstruction formed between the raised front part of the tongue and the hard palate, eg Федя, ведь.
Possible Mistakes.1. Russian learners of English may carelessly pronounce [w] instead of [v]. This mistake is a phonological one. To avoid it the mirror should be used to make sure that the upper lip is out of the way.
Word contrasts with [v — w) may be useful for practice:
verse — worse, vet — wet, vim — whim, veal — wheel
2. The learners sometimes palatalize these consonants before
front close or mid-open vowels. It is a phonetic mistake.
Care must be taken not to raise the front part of the tongue to the hard palate during their production.
3. Very often Russians try to pronounce the final [v] as fully voiced or even with a weak sound [э] following it. They should just remember that the final [v] is weak and short and stop worrying about voicing, eg halve, prove.
4. To avoid the complete devoicing of the final [vj sound the students of English must make the friction rather weak. The complete devoicing is a phonological mistake.
The word contrast practice is rather useful to show the difference in meaning:
live — life, save — sale, of — off, prove — proof
[9,6] occur in word initial, word medial and word final positions. [9] — spelt "th", eg thought, nothing, hearth [o] — spelt "th", eg глеу, father, with
Definition. [9, d] are constrictive fricative, forelingual, interdental; [9] is strong and voiceless, [d] is weak and voiced, in final position it is partly devoiced.
voice
4?
Possible Mistakes.1. Russian learners of English often pronounce the Russian dorsal dental [с, з] instead of th«e English apical alveolar [s, zj. To avoid this one must keep striict to the apical articulation and put the tip of the tongue close to the teeth ridge.
2. In the flow of speech [s, z) may be substituted by [9, 6]. The students should remember that [s, zj are produiced with much4more friction and keep the tip of the tongue away from the edge of the upper teeth.
3. Russians may palatalize |s, z) before front and mbced close or mid-open vowels. To avoid this, tkey should accormplish the articulation of the consonants and only then raise the ffront part of the tongue to produce the following vowel.
4. If [zj in word final position is fully voiced it is a phonetic mistake. To get rid of it care should эе taken to make; the consonant rather weak.
5. To avoid the complete devoicing of the final [z] ((a phonological mistake) one must make the friction weaker.
The word contrast practice is useful:
said — zed, seal — zeal, racing — raising, loose — lose
[f, з] occur in word initial, word medid and word final {positions. [f] —spelt "sh, ch, sch, s, ss, x", eg shoe, sure, sschedule,
machine, assure, luxury, dish [3]— spelt "si, s, z, ge", eg vision, measure, seizurre, usual,
prestige
4')
Fig.30.
passing between the vocal cords and out of the mouth which is already held really for the following vowel: before |i:] the mouth is in position fur [i:), before [u:J it is ready for [u:] and so on; so there are many (h]-sOunds in English because different types of friction will be heard for it in the sequences [hi:], |ha:], [hu:J and others.
Recommendations.In order to make [hj-sounds, hold the mouth ready for the vowel and push a short gasp of breath by the lungs; breathe the air out weakly adding some slight fricative noise to the vowel.
Comparison with the Russian fx, x'J.The Russian [x] is articulated in the mouth. The back part of the tongue is raised towards the soft palate and the friction is very strong. The Russian palatalized [x'] has two foci, the secondary focus being formed by the front part of the tongue raised towards the hard palate (front secondary focus).
Possible Mistakes.1. Learners of English usually pronounce the English sound [h] with a very strong friction. They should remember that it occurs only before vowels and is a pure sound of breath, so they must prepare the organs of speech for the articulation of the following vowel and breathe the air weakly out of the mouth.
2. Sometimes they drop the sound completely. There is a tendency in R. P. now to drop it in form words in the flow of speech, eg / want him to come [ai vwdiu im ta^kAm], but it should not be left out in notional words, otherwise it is a phonological mistake, cf hear— ear.
3. If they pronounce the Russian [xj instead, they must take care to articulate it in the glottis.
4. Russian learners of English may palatalize [h] before front high or mid-open vowels. To avoid it one must not raise the front part of the tongue during the articulation of [hj.
5?
Possible Mistakes. 1.Russian students of English easily replace the English [n] by the Russian |hJ. When the English [nj is formed they should be careful to put the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge.
voice |
Fig. 35. |
tive — негатив, Neptune никель. |
2. In case they palatalize the English sound [nj (a phonetic, mistake) care should he taken not to raise the front part of the tongue to the hard palate while [nj is pronounced. cf nectar — нектар, nega-— Нептун, Nick — Ник, nickel —
[rj] occurs in word medial and word final positions, spelt "ng" or "n" + a velar consonant, eg long, tongue, sink, uncle, finger.
Definition,[o] is occlusive, nasal, backlingual, velar. Articulation.1. The back part of the tongue is pressed to the soft palate.
2. The soft palate is lowered and the air goes through the nose.
3. The vocal cords vibrate.
Recommendations. 1. Start with Articulation Exercises 111, 10, 11; IV, I, 2.
2. Open the mouth wide, raise the back of the tongue to the soft palate so that you can feel the firm contact of them. Push the air through the nose. The tip of the tongue is low in the mouth. Be sure to keep this mouth position. At the end of the sound let it die away into silence with no suggestion of [k] or |gj.
Now try the following words making (rjl long:
sing — long — song — sung
[sinrjn] [looon] [sdoodI (SAD00l
If you do this easily, try the same thing with the teeth closer together.
Allophones.Like in the case with [m, n) the sonorant [n] may have variants of different length. It is defined by the position of [rjj in the word (see the allophones of (mj), cf sing — singing — sink.
Comparison with the Russian [h].In Russian there is no similar sound, that is why you must make every effort to avoid mistakes.
Possible Mistakes. 1. Very often Russian learners of English replace the English [n] by the Russian [н] or the English [n]. Not to make this mistake you should raise the back of the tongue to the soft palate. The tip of the tongue should not rise at all being kept at the lower teeth. A mirror may help to check the position of the tongue.
In case they pronounce the English [n] instead of [rj] the mistake is phonological.
The word contrast practice is useful:
sin — sing, sun — sung, ran — rang
2. Sometimes the English sounds [kj or [g] are pronounced
<tfter the sonorant [n].' The difficulty is to avoid putting in a [k]
or [g] after [n] especially when it stands between vowels. So
jnake the final [n] long and let it die away into silence. If [n]
Occurs between vowels, go from [n] to the following vowel very
smoothly, with no jerk, at first do it rather slowly, then more quickly.
3. Some learners of English nasalize the vowel preceding the
sound [rj]. Not to make this mistake they must be very careful to
pronounce the vowel in a proper way and then to press the back
of the tongue against the soft palate forming a firm contact
iictween them so that no air could go through the mouth.
CONSTRICTIVE ORAL SONORANTS
|l| occurs in all word positions, spelt "1, 11", eq like, glad, tall
J
On the whole the colouring of the Russian [л] is darker than that of the English Щ, cf мыл — mill, пил — pill, стул — stool.
The tip of the tongue rises to the upper teeth for the Russian 'atalized |л') as well. But in this case the front part of the
gue is raised to the hard palate even higher than for the English 'clear* (I]. So the Russian [л'] is still softer than the 'clear' Fnglish [1], cf люк — look, лес — less, лип — lip.
Possible Mistakes. 1.The first possible mistake is the substitution of the English alveolar K) by the Russian dental [л]. When pronouncing the English [1] the students should remember that the contact between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge (not the upper teeth) should be very firm. They should not make the English [1] too dark.
2. Russian learners of English often replace the English alveolar 'clear' [1] by the Russian dental palatalized [л']. Care must be taken not to raise the front part of the tongue to the hard palate too high, otherwise the 'clear' [1] sounds too soft.
3. The 'dark' and the 'clear' [1] should not substitute each other. Though the 'dark' and 'clear' variants of [1] are allophones of the same phoneme their mixing up is not desirable as they are produced in a different way. The secondary focus for the 'clear' |l| is the front part of the tongue raised to the hard palate, while lor the 'dark' ft] it is the back part of the tongue which is raised to the soft palate.
The word contrast practice is very useful in this case: less — sell, let — tell, lip — pill, lit — till
4. The learners should not forget to devoice the sonorant [1]
when the preceding consonant is voiceless, eg pamphlet, slow,
mantle.
|w] occurs in word initial and word'medial positions, spelt "w, wh; u" after q, g, eg warm, what, question, language, sweet.
Definition,[w] is constrictive, medial, bilabial, bicentral.
Articulation. 1.The lips are firmly iounded and slightly protruded forming an incomplete obstruction.
2. The soft palate is raised and the air yoes to the mouth.
3. The back part of the tongue is raised towards the soft palate forming the secondary focus.
4. The sides of the tongue are raised and the air goes along the central part of the tongue.
5. The vocal cords vibrate.
Recommendations.1. Start with Articulation Exercise II, 3, 5,9.
2. Keep the lips well rounded and even slightly protruded forming a round narrowing for the air stream.
3. Push the air through the mouth.
Allophones. 1.The words spelt with "wh", such as when, what, why may be pronounced with |hw] or the voiceless fortis labio-velar fricative [м).
2. When [w] occurs after voiceless consonants we hear a voiceless sound as in twelve, queen, square.
As in Russian there is no similar consonant every effort should be made not to pronounce any other sound resembling the English sonorant [w].
Possible Mistakes.1. Some speakers tend to replace the bilabial sonorant [w] by the English labio-dental, fricative [v] or the Russian (в). Not to make the mistake keep the lips well rounded when [w] is pronounced; there should be a glide towards the following vowel. If (v] is pronounced instead of [w] a phonological mistake is made as the sounds distinguish the meaning of words, cf worse — verse, wine — vine, while — vi7e.
2. As [w] is a gliding consonant in which there is a quick glide from the sonorant to the following vowel some Russian learners of English substitute the sonorant (wj by the Russian [y]. To pronounce the sonorant [wj correctly the lips should be rounded and protruded, but not so much as for the Russian vowel jyj. One should make [w] quick and energetic.
(j] occurs in word initial and word medial positions, spelt "y". eg yard; also spelt "u, ew, eu, eau, ui", eg mute, few, feud, beauty, suit.
Definition,[j] is constrictive, medial, mediolingual, palatal.
Articulation.1. The front part of the tongue is raised to the hard palate.
2. The sides of the tongue are raised and the air goes along the central part of it.
3. The lips are generally neutral or spread.
4. The soft palate is raised and the air escapes through the mouth.
5. The vocal cords are kept together and vibrate.
Recommendations. 1. Start with Articulation Exercise 111, 11.
2. Keep the lips neutral or slightly read.
3. Raise the front part of the tongue to voice > hard palate so that the passage could pjg M rather wide and push the air through
the mouth. The sound tJI should be short and weak. The tongue ■ iiides in the direction of the following vowel..Be careful not to ;ke any friction in the glide.
Allophones. When [j) follows fortis voiceless consonants it is l»<irtially devoieed, eg pew, tune, hue.
Comparison with the Russian Щ. The Russian sound [)] is pronounced with more noise than the English [j] as the front part <>f the tongue is raised higher.
Possible Mistakes. 1. Russian students of English often replace the English |j] by the Russian [j]. To avoid this mistake one ••lu mid remember that the front part of the tongue is not raised '■■■< high. The air passage is rather wide and thus no friction is
ird, cf yard — яд, yell — ел, yacht — болю.
If it is difficult for the students to pronounce [j] glidelike, they should begin with the position of the English sound jr.] and llicn move smoothly and quickly to the following vowel, eg yes lies]. The [i] should be very short.
|r| occurs in word initial and word medial positions and in word
final positions as the linking [r]. |i) spelt "r, rr, wr, rh", eg run, berry, write, rhythm, far away, poor
animal
Definition, [r] is constrictive," medial, forelingual, cacuminal, post-alveolar.
Articulation. 1. The tip of the tongue is held in a position m-.ir to but not touching the back of the alveolar ridge, the front |mi t of the tongue is low and the back is rather high so that the liinque has a curved shape (cacuminal articulation).
2. The position of the lips is determined by that of tiie following vowel.
3. The soft palate is raised and the air flows quietly between the tip of the tongue, and the palate.
4. The vocal cords vibrate.
Recommendations.1. Start with Arti
culation Exercise 111, 6.
2. Put the tip of the tongue against the
V0ice back of the alveolar ridge without touch-
,9- ing it. If you touch the alveolar ridge with
the tip of the tongue there will be a firm contact between them and the resulting sound is [1] but not |r]. Remember that [r] is a purely gliding sound with no sudden change, cf light — right, low — row, lock — rock.
3. Keep the lips in the position for the following vowel, eg reach (spread lips), root (rounded lips).
4. Push the air through the mouth so that you could hear a smooth glide.
If you still find it difficult to pronounce the sonorant [r], try approaching it from the Russian sound [ж]. Get the speech organs ready for [ж]. Pronounce a long sound [ж], eg [жжж]. Now curl the tip of the tongue back behind the alveolar ridge and make the air passage wider than for the Russian [ж]. Ц the tip of the tongue does not vibrate you get the English sonorant [rj. *
AHophones.1. After [9, 3] a single tap [r] is heard, which is formed by the tip of the tongue on the alveolar ridge, eg three, with respect.
2. After voiceless consonants [r] is devoiced. The position of the tongue is the same but the air stream is pushed through the passage between the tip of the tongue and the hard palate, causing some friction, eg pray, proud, prime, tree, try, tram, cream, cry, cruel.
Comparison with the Russian [p, p'J.The Russian sound [p]
is also called cacuminal as the tip of the tongue is raised to the
alveolar ridge forming a spoon-shaped passage for the air
stream. But when we pronounce the Russian {pj the tip of the
tongue taps very quickly several times against the teeth ridge.
So the Russian [pj is a rolled or trilled sonorant, cf рис — rice,
радиатор — radiator, радикальный — radical, реальный —
real. .M
The palatalized Russian [p'] is pronounced with the front secondary focus. The sonorants [p — p'] distinguish the meaning of words, eg ров — рёв, рад — ряд.
Possible Mistakes. 1. Russian learners often replace the English post-alveolar sonorant [r] by the Russian alveolar rolled [p]. To avoid this mistake they should move the tip of the tongue to the back of the alveolar ridge and keep it tense at some distance from it so that no tapping of the tongue could be made when the air goes through the passage. They should try to pronounce the English sonorant [r] starting from the Russian sound [ж] (see Recommendations for [r]).
2. Not to pronounce the palatalized sound (p'] students should keep the front part of the tongue low.
3. Learners should not be misled by the spelling into pronouncing post-vocalic letter "r". In words such as star, arm, harm, etc the "r"-letter is used to show the length of the preceding vowel, and in beer, poor, here, etc as a sign of the [э] element of the diphthong. In connected speech the final "r" gives the so-('ailed linking [r], eg poor old man.
4. Sometimes learners of English insert the so-called 'intrusive* [r] when there is no letter "r" in the spelling, eg Africa and Asia. Russian learners are not recommended to do it.
'4
THE REDUCTION OF CONSONANT CLUSTERS (ELISION) .. ,..„ - -
The reduction of some consonant clusters was established long ago.
1. The initial [w, k, g) may be dropped, eg write [rait], /спои
[пзи], gnat [riaet]. ,
2. The medial [t] or [dl are dropped in a cluster of three consonants, eg listen ['lisnj, soften {'sDfn], Wednesday f'wenzdi).
3. The final [b] is dropped in the cluster [mb], eg lamb [laem], dumb [с1лт).
In other cases of recent formation the elided forms are typical only of rapid colloquial speech. In the following examples the elided sound is still pronounced in careful, precise speech, cf often [r>fn] or ['oftan].
In present-day English the reduction of clusters continues to take place.
The plosives [t] or jd] in the clusters [-st, -ft, -ft, -nd, -Id, -zd,
dd, -vd] in final position when followed by a word with an initial
consonant are often reduced in rapid speech, eg last time ['lets
taim], mashed potatoes ['maef рэЧеизиг], next day ['neks 'dei],
old man [зи1 'maen].
Word final clusters of plosives or affricates + [t] or [d] [-pt, kt, -tft, -bd, -gd, -d3d] may lose the final alveolar plosive when the lollowing word begins with a consonant, eg kept quiet ['kep kwaatj, lagged behind ['laeg bi'hamd].
The alveolar [t] of the negative -n't is often reduced before a. consonant, eg You mustn't do it [ju ~* mAsn xdu: it].
When [t] or [d] occur between two other plosives they are never heard, eg locked gate [Ък 'geit], strict teacher ['stnk 'tiitfaj.
[h] may be dropped in the following monosyllables when non-initial and unstressed: have, has, had; he, him, his, her, who,
<ag
Tell him he is wanted [~* tel im iz ^wmitid]
but: He's wanted {hiz vwontid]
The reduction of consonant clusters is also typical of Russian colloquial speech, eg сердце, солнце, поздно, чувствовать.
NON-OBLIGATORY ASSIMILATIONS OF FLUENT COLLOQUIAL SPEECH ________________________
Accidental or positional assimilations at word boundaries are made by English people in rapid colloquial speech. The alveolar consonants, [t, d, n, s, z] in word final position often assimilate to the place of articulation of the following word initial consonant.
Before [p, b, m] the consonant [tj changes into [pj, eg that place ['daep-'pleis], |d] changes into [b], eg lead pencil ['tcb 'pcnsl], and [n] changes into [m], eg main path ['mcim 'pa:9].
Before [k, gj the consonant [tj changes into (kj, eg light coat j'laik'k3tn), |d] changes into [gj, eg good company ['gug 'клтрэш], jn) changes into [gj, eg woollen coat [Wlarj 'кзш].
Before f,i] the consonant [s] changes into Щ, eg this shop ('Oif'/opl. [s] changes into [3J, eg Has she? |пжзJU).
Coalescence of [t, d, s, z] with [jj often takes place at word boundaries in colloquial speech, eg
[t] + [j] in: what you... fwDtfu]
[d] + yj in: would you... ['wud5u]
[s] + j] in: in case you... [in'kei/u-J
[z] + [j] in: does she... ['dxtfv]
The coalescence is more complete in the case of [t, d] + [jj, especially in question tags, eg didn't you ['didntjir], could you ('kud3u].
These and similar cases need not be necessarily imitated by foreign learners of English, but they should be aware of the peculiarities of rapid colloquial speech.
И
(1) The post-alveolar [r] becomes alveolar when it is preceded iiy [6J or [d], eg three, thread, with Russian.
(2) When [rj is preceded by a voiceless consonant it is slightly devoiced, eg cream, pretty, trick, free, strength, thread, shrub.
(3) The lip position of [r] is determined by that of the following vowels.
[w] and [j]
[w] and [j) can be followed by almost any vowel. The differ-1'iice in the allophones depends on the vowel following them.
(1) The position of the lips is modified in accordance with the
vowel following [w] and [j]:
(a) the lips are spread, eg we, yeast;
(b) the lips are rounded and slightly protruded, eg war, wood,
Vmi.
(2) When preceded by voiceless consonants [w] and (jj are
p.irtly devoiced, eg twin, twinkle, queen, quite, swim, sweat, pew,
rxcuse, tune, stew.
Fig. 43.
Definition,[as] is front, open (broad variant), unrounded.
Articulation.The mouth is more open than for [e]. The tongue is in the front part of the mouth. The front of the tongue is rather low in the mouth. The side rims of the tongue make a very slight contact with the back upper teeth. The tongue is more tense than in the case of [ej.
I
This vowel occurs only in closed syllables, eg Sam, lad, pack, ladder.
Allophones.The vowel [as] appears to be much longer before weak consonants, especially before [b, d, g, ф, m, n]. In this position it is almost equivalent in quantity to the longest variants of (i:, a:, y., u:, з:), cf lad — saw, man — car.
The stressed vowel [ae] is checked and much shorter before strong voiceless consonants, cf sad — sat, ladder — latter.
Recommendations.Start with Articulation Exercises I, 1—3. Take a mirror and check the position of the jaws. They should be considerably separated. Keep the tip of the tongue by the lower teeth. The body of the tongue is advanced. Take care to keep the front of the tongue very low in the mouth. To make the vowel (ae] checked cut it off by the following strong voiceless consonant.
Comparison with the Russian Vowel [э].The Russian vowel [э] is less open and slightly more retracted than the English vowel [ae].
Possible Mistakes.Russian students of English can easily replace the English vowel [ae] by the Russian vowel [э]. In this case the mouth should be opened wider, the front of the tongue should be kept as low as possible.
H
or — cart, star, arch ear — heart
a — grass, after, path, branch al — calf, calm
Fig. 44. |
au — aunt, laugh
Definition,[a] is back, open (broad variant), unrounded, long.
Articulation.The mouth is open. The tongue is in the back part of the mouth. The back of the tongue is only slightly raised. No contact is made between the rims of the tongue and the upper teeth. The lips are neutral.
This vowel may occur in all positions in the word, eg arm, large, far, artistic.
Allophones.The vowel [cu] is the longest in the open syllable when it is free. It is shorter in the closed-syllable with a weak voiced consonant at the end. It is checked and rather short in the stressed closed syllable ejnding in a strong voiceless consonant, cf car — card — cart.
Recommendations.Start with Articulation Exercise IV, 1. Take a mirror and check the position of the tongue. The mouth should be open. Withdraw the tip of the tongue from the lower teeth. Keep the whole body of the tongue as low as possible to see the back part of the soft palate quite clearly. Play with the [a: J vowels until you adjust your sound to the English model you hear. The sound should come from the back of the mouth. To make the vowel [clJ checked and short in closed syllables before a strong voiceless consonant you must cut it off by this consonant.
Comparison with the Russian Vowel [aj.The Russian vowel [a] is far more advanced than the English vowel [a:] and qualified as central. It is normally shorter than the English [a].
Possible Mistakes.1. Russian students of English can easily replace the English vowel [a:] by the Russian vowel [a]. In this case the whole body of the tongue should be retracted. If the mouth is open and the back of the tongue is low enough you can easily see the soft palate in the mirror which is not possible in the case of the Russian vowel [a].
2. If the vowel [a:] is not checked and short enough in
stressed closed syllables with a strong voiceless consonant at the
end it is advisable to cut it off by the following consonant. |
M , !
о — dog, rock, holiday, jolly, gore j
a — want, duality
ou, ow — cough, knowledge
au — sausage, Austria
I
I
or — corn, port, force, lord
aw — law, drawn
ou, au — bought, fault, audible
a — call, chalk, water, war, quarter
ore, oor, oar, our — shore, door, board, four, court
M
full
wolf, woman look, wool would, could
U
I
Recommendations.Start with Articulation Exercise II, 2, 3.
Take a mirror and check the position of the lips which should be rounded but not protruded. The mouth is only slightly open. If the centralization of (u) is not sufficient change it in the direction of the vowel [э]. То make the vowel [u] checked cut it off by the following strong voiceless consonant.
Comparison with the Russian Vowel |yj.The Russian vowel [y] is closer, more retracted and generally longer than the English vowel [uj. It is pronounced with the lips not only well rounded but also protruded.
Possible Mistakes. 1.Russian students of English can easily replace the English vowel [u] by the Russian vowel [y]. In this case the tongue should be advanced and slightly lowered. The lips should be by no means protruded. The vowel may be given the shade of the Russian (ы] pronounced with the lips slightly rounded but not spread.
2. If the vowel [u] is not checked and short enough in stressed closed syllables ending in a strong voiceless consonant cut it off by this consonant.
W
u — mud, dull, butter, much
о — son, brother, nothing
ou — young, country, rough
Fig. 48. |
do — flood
Definition,[a] is central, mid (broad variant), unrounded, short.
Articulation.The tongue is in the central part of the mouth. The front of the tongue is raised to the back of the hard palate just above the fully open position. No contact is made between the tongue and the upper teeth. The tongue is lax. The jaws are considerably separated. The lips are neutrally open. The vowel is short.
This vowel does not occur in open syllables, eg mother, onion, come, cut, unusual.
Allophones.The vowel (a] is longer in the closed syllable with a weak voiced consonant at the end. It is checked and much shorter in the stressed closed syllable ending in a strong voiceless consonant, cf among — cut.
Recommendations.Start with Articulation Exercise I, 2.
To make the vowel [л] advanced enough give it the shade of the neutral vowel (э). То make it checked cut it off by the follow-, ing strong voiceless consonant.
Be sure not to confuse the quality of the vowels [л] and [a.]'
which can easily happen in the closed syllable before a strongi
voiceless consonant, cf cart — cut. I
Comparison with the Russian Vowel [a].The Russian vowelj [a] is more open and generally longer than the English [л].
Possible Mistakes. 1.If the English vowel (л] is replaced by]
the Russian vowel [aj the tongue must be slightly retracted and!
the central part of the tongue should be raised higher. i
2. Sometimes the English (л) is not checked and short enough in stressed closed syllables ending in a voiceless conso-i nant. This mistake is especially common in such syllables whichi would be open in Russian. For instance, the syllable division on the word butter in English is but-ter. According to Russian pro* nunciation habits it would be bu-tter. To make the English (л| checked and short enough it is necessary to observe correct syl-j lable division and cut the vowel off by the following consonant.
— sir, girl, bird, first, myrtle — her, earl, heard, err — fur, curl, purr — worm, worse — journalist |
ir, yr
er, ear, err
it, urr
/or
< ur
M
oo — soon, mood, boot
о — to, lose
ou — through, wound, soup
u — rule, June
ew, ue, ui, oe — news, due, suit, shoe
104*
J
46. Think of word pairs to illustrate the difference in the quality
of the vowels |i:J and (i], a:] and [л], [э:] and [о], [u:] and [u]
in similar phonetic contexts. Then think of sentences in
which these words could be opposed, eg:
I saw a fish deep in the water. I saw a fish dip in the water.
47. Think of word sequences to illustrate the difference in vowel
length in different positions.
DIPHTHONGS
A
M
Fig. 55. Ill |
oi — oil, noise oy — boy, enjoy
Definition.The nucleus of the diphthong is back, open (narrow variant), slightly rounded.
Articulation.The nucleus lies between the sounds (o:J and (d). It starts with the position between back half-open and open. For the glide the tongue moves upwards in the direction of fij, though the tongue rarely reaches there. The lips are slightly rounded for the nucleus changing to neutral for the glide.
The sound [oi] occurs in all positions of the word, cf oyster, voice, toy.
Allophones.The nucleus of the diphthong is longer in the open syllable, it is shorter in the closed syllable followed by a weak consonant and it is the shortest in the closed syllable before a strong voiceless consonant, cf boy — boys — voice.
Recommendations.Start with Articulation Exercises II, 3; 111, 2; IV, 1. Take a mirror and practise the sound getting closer. Make the glide very weak. The sound [i] should be hardly reached.
Comparison with the Russian [ojj.The Russian sound combination [oj] starts from a closer position and ends in the sonorant [jj, cf boy — бой.
Possible Mistakes. 1.If the nucleus is too close the back part of the tongue should be kept lower.
2. Russian students of English can easily replace the diphthong [at] by the Russian sound combination |oj]. When [oj] is heard make sure that the second element is very weak. Follow all the recommendations given above.
[зи]
о — so, home v о + st — most, post
oa + consonant — boat, road о + И — roll, poll
ow — know, fellow о + Id — told, cold
ou — shoulder, though
Definition.The nucleus of the diphthong is central, mid (narrow variant), unrounded.
Articulation.The starting point of the tongue position is similar to that of [з:]; it starts with a central position, between half-close and half-open. For the glide the tongue moves upwards in the direction of [u] there being a slight closing movement of the lower jaw. The lips are neutral for the first element and get slightly rounded for the second.
U
ТаЫеП
I I
Part Three
Syllable Structure
Word Stress
Chapter II. THE DEGREES AND THE POSITION OF WORD STRESS
ii
Low Level ________________
Pitch Range.Pitch range is* the interval between two pitch levels or two differently pitched syllables or parts of a syllable. The pitch range of a whole intonation pattern is the interval between the highest-pitched and the lowest"pitched syllables. Pitch ranges may be normal, wide and narrow.
Normal pitch range Wide pitch range Narrow pitch range
[in high and low levels)
Pitch-and-StressSections. Pitch-and-stress sections of an intonation pattern containing several stressed syllables are: pre-liead, head, nucleus, tail, eg:
I klidn't 'know you've Ъееп to >Lon don.
Gt; V.-------------- ^---------------- S ^_J L^J
pre-head head nucleus tail
THE NUCLEUS. TYPES OF NUCLEI
The last stressed syllable of the intonation pattern on which the pitch movement changes is called the nucleus. The nucleus is usually of the highest importance; it is on this syllable that the whole pitch pattern centres.
There are eight nuclear tones in Modern English: (1) The Low (Medium) F a 11. The voice falls from the low (medium) pitch level to the bottom of the pitch.
vNo. _________ -^ vNo. ________ ^
The Low Fall variant The Mid-Fall variant
(2) The High Fall. The voice falls all the way down from a high to the lowest note possible:
No.
Л
(3) The Rise — Fall. The voice usually rises from a medium to a high pitch level and then quickly falls to a low pitch:
Quot;No.
A
(4) The Low Rise. The voice rises from a very low to a medium pitch level or a little higher.
<No-_______ i_____ >
The Low Rise The Low Rise
Of a narrow range of a wide range
(5) The High (Medium) Rise. The voice rises from a medium or high pitch level and moves up to the top of the voice:
-------- -------- _--------- -------
'No. -^
The Medium Rise The High Rise
(6) The Fall — R i s e. The voice first falls from a medium or high to a rather low pitch level then rises to a moderately medium pitch:
'No.
^_____________ .
Лс
The Fall-Rise of The Fall-Rise of The Fall-Rise of
a medium range a wide range a narrow range
The Fall-Rise can be pronounced within one syllable or spread over two or more syllables, eg:
vNo. | - |
77ie Fall-Rise within one syllable | |
vNe,ver. | ^y |
ГЛе Fall-Rise spread over two syllables* | |
generally I | ,do. -^ 1 t 1 f f «S |
The Fall-Rise spread over a number of syllables
In this and similar cases the tone can be called terminal as it is spread "ver the nucleus and the tail.
If the Fall-Rise occurs within one syllable and the vowel is followed by a sonorant the voice usually falls during the vowel and goes up on the sonorant, eg:
vTen.
JV
In case the vowel is followed by a noise consonant the Fall-Rise takes place within the vowel, eg:
vFed.
:^_
/Fish.
J^.
If the Fall-Rise is spread over two or more syllables the fall is completed within the stressed syllable, all the following unstressed or partially stressed syllables being said very low. The rise in this case occurs from the lowest pitch level, eg
Occasionally, I;don't. #->4
♦ » « ■
J
(7) The Rise-Fall-Rise. The voice rises from a very low pitch level, moves up to the medium (or high) one. falls deep down, thenTises again, eg:
*No, ^
(8) The Mid-Level maintains a level pitch between high and low; the voice neither rises nor falls, eg:
>No.
So the eight nuclei are:
Falling: Low (Medium) Fall [J; High Fall (v); Rise-Fall |A]. Rising: Low Rise [,]; High (Medium) Rise [']; Fall-Rise [v] Rise-Fall-Rise {-). Mid-Level [>.
THE TAIL
Post nuclear unstressed or partially stressed syllables a; called the tail.
(1) After a falling nucleus the tail remains low or is said evt lower, eg
vNo, sir. -v ,No, ,Tom. —v
The Tail with an The Tail with a partially
Unstressed syllable stressed syllable
(2) In case the tail occurs after the rising nucleus the stress* syllable itself does not rise in pitch and each of the followii unstressed syllables is a step higher than the previous one, eg
,No, sir. ,No, ,Tom.
The Tail with The Tail with
An unstressed syllable a partially stressed syllabi
Note: If the tail contains many syllables the rise may be со tinued very high, eg
Did you ,see him .yesterday? --- • »•'
(3) With the falling-rising tone the rise occurs on unstress' or partially stressed syllables, eg
vNo, sir. "v vNo, ,Tom. n.
(4) After the Mid-Level nucleus the tail" stays on the sar level, eg
>No, sir. --- . >No, /Torn.
The Tail with The TaU with
An unstressed syllable a partially stressed syllabi
The tail stress mark in the text: [,J — partially stressed syllable on any level.
L__________ -iu.
It is interesting to note that the tone-mark [V] on the first stressed syllable of any type of descending heads shows the general direction of the voice movement, its descending character. Other stressed syllables are marked by ['] placed before the syllable.
Note: We suppose that the following notation system may be useful in practical work because it reflects the rhythm of intonation groups, though we must admit that it is rather complicated when a comparatively long text is marked.
I
In case the stressed syllable is followed by one or several unstressed or partially stressed ones, they are marked like this: (|..J — the dot (or dots) immediately placed after the stress mark on the same level if it is the Stepping Head, the dots go down if it is the Falling Head: (|.,j or they go up, if it is the Scandent Head: ||.»J; (v.J — stressed and unstressed syllables of the Sliding Head.
(b) The head is called falling when the stressed syllables also move down by steps but intervening unstressed syllables fall down, continuing the descending direction, eg:
I V don't want to 'go to the xcinema.
(c) There are cases when unstressed or partially stressed syllables move up. They are pronounced higher than the stressed syllables. This type of descending head is called scandent, eg
lAdon't "want to 'go to the xcinema. ——• ,'
д--------- ~—_2л*.
(d) If the voice moves down by slides within stressed syllables the head is called sliding. Unstressed or partially stressed syllables between the slides usually continue the fall.
eg:
I Vdon't Vwant to Vgo to the xcinema. •^4"*n»^..
If these slides are of a rather wide range and reach the bottom of the pitch we have an intonation pattern with several high falls within it, eg:
I Vdon't Vwant to Vgo to the Vcinema.
(e) Within long intonation-groups gradually descending heads (usually stepping or falling) may be broken by the so-
called 'accidental (special) rise'. This happens when one of the syllables is pronounced on a higher pitch level than the preceding one. The broken descending head is very common when one particular word M a phrase should be singled out. eg:
You'd Vget to "know quite a Tlot of 'interesting vpeople
there.
Ли
So the descending heads are:
(a) The Stepping Head;
(b) The Falling Head;
(c) The Scandent Head;
(d) The Sliding Head.
The descending heads occur before any nuclear tone except the Mid-Level tone.
The descending head tone-and-stress marks in the text: |l] — the first stressed syllable of all types of Descending Heads; ['] — stressed syllables of Descending Heads
2. Ascending Heads
Ascending heads are the opposite of descending ones: their first stressed syllable is low in the pitch, each following stressed syllable being higher than the preceding one; thus the stressed syllables form an ascending sequence.
(a) If the voice moves up by steps and the intervening unstressed or partially stressed syllables continue the rise the head is called r i s i n g, eg:
1 Г don't "want to 'go to the xcinema. • —' * ^N
.i^r:___________ Lu.
The tone-mark [ / ] on the first stressed syllable of both types of ascending heads shows the general rising direction of the voice movement.
(b) If the voice moves up by slides the head is called climbing; unstressed or partially stressed syllables glide up too, eg:
I
I /don't /want to /go to the xcinema. .,•—''* *
So the ascending heads are:'
(a) The Rising Head;
(b) The Climbing Head.
The ascending heads are usually associated with the High (Medium) Fall or the High (Medium) Rise.
Tone-and-stress marks used in the text:
[ / ) — the first stressed syllable of the Rising Head
['] — stressed syllables of the Rising Head
3. Level Heads
In level heads all the syllables are pronounced on more or less the same note of a pitch level.
(a) If they happen to be on a high level the head is called the High Level Head, eg:
I ~* don't 'want to 'go to the xcinema.
L.
This head usually occurs before the high-falling, high-rising and rising-falling nuclear tones.
The most frequently used type of the High Level Head is the head with one strongly stressed syllable and unstressed or partially stressed syllables pronounced on the same high level. It is usually called the High Head, eg:
I "Midn't xknow it. "*
I_______ L_j__
Note: The tone-mark ( ~* ] above the first stressed syllable of joth types of high level heads shows that the tone sounds on a ugh level note. Other stressed syllables have the common tress mark: [').
(b) If the рге-nuclear stressed or partially stressed syllables re pronounced on the medium pitch level the head is called .'tedium level, eg:
I -»don't "want to I 'go to the ^cinema.
Ii~ i
Note; The tone-mark [-» j in the Medium Level Head is placed before the first stressed syllable.-
This head can occur before any nuclear tone, but it is very common before the Mid-Level nucleus.
(c) Рге-nuclear stressed syllables pronounced on the low pitch level constitute the Low Level Head, eg:
I ^don't 'want to 'go to the ^cinema.
»<— » » i «*
Note: The tone-mark [ _»] in the Low Level Head is placed under the first stressed syllable.
The Low Level Head generally occurs before the Low Rise and the Low Fall.
So the level heads are:
(a) The High Level Head;
(b) The Medium Level Head;
(c) The Low Level Head.
Tone-and-stress marks in the text: [ ~* 1 — the first stressed syllable of the High Level Head [ / ~* 1— tne first stressed syllable of the Medium Level Head ( _»' j— the first stressed syllable of the Low Level Head [ ] — other stressed syllables of the level heads
Heads
Descending | Ascending | Level |
The Stepping Head The Falling Head The Sliding Head | The Rising Head The Climbing Head | The High Level Head The High Head The Medium Level Head The Low Level Head |
THE PRE-HEAD (PRE-NUCLEUS)
Unstressed or partially stressed syllables which precede the head are called the p r e - h e a d. In short intonation groups where there is no head and these syllables precede the nucleus they are called the pre-nucleus.
There are two types of pre-head or pre-nucleus: low and high.
(a) If unstressed or partially stressed syllables ate
pronounced lower than the first stressed syllable of the head,
the pre-head is called low.
In low pre-nucleus these syllables are lower than the start of the nuclear tone, eg:
1 don't Vwant to 'go to the xcinema. I don't xwant it.
II .1. I I I —^—^—..................................... ............ .1 II II —.—пинии ll,| и .■*—»—
I
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What pitch levels are generally distinguished?
2. What is a pitch range? What pitch ranges are called normal, wide, narrow?
3. Enumerate and define the pitch-and-stress sections of an intonation pattern.
4. What is the nucleus? What types of nuclear tones do you know? Define each of the eight nuclei.
5. What section of the intonation pattern is called 'the Head'? How are the heads grouped in English?
6. Why is it necessary to differentiate the four types of descending heads?
7. What is the main difference between the falling, stepping and scandent heads?
8. What kind of head is called sliding? What is its emphatic variant?
9. What is meant by 'The broken descending head'?
10. Think of the examples with the broken descending heads. What tone mark is used for this head type?
11. What types of heads are called ascending?
12. What is the difference between the Rising Head and the Climbing Head? >
, 13. Write on the blackboard the tone-and-stress marks used in the text for ascending heads. Illustrate them with your own examples.
14. What heads are called level?
15. Describe each type of level heads.
16. What is a pre-head? What types of pre-head are generally distinguished? What tone-and-stress marks are used for the pre-heads in the text?
IX
VAsk him to 'ring me 'up avgain.
-">>
The same utterance pronounced with the Stepping Head sounds more weighty and ponderous.
Pitch-and-Stress Sections | Non-Emphatic | Emphatic | |
Pre-Heads | Low Pre-Head | High Pre-Head | |
Heads | Descending | Falling Head | Stepping, Sliding. Scan-dent, Several High Falls. Broken Descending Heads |
Ascending | Rising Head | Climbing Head | |
Level | Medium Level Head | Low Level Head High Level Head | |
Nuclear and Terminal Tones | Low (Medium) Fall. Low Rise Mid-Level | High Fall. High Rise. Rise-Fall. Fall-Rise. Rise-Fall-Rise |
Both Falling and Stepping Heads broken by an accidental rise sound more lively, express personal concern of the speaker by intensifying some particular word in the phrase, eg:
He Vcame 'home extactly at 'seven ,sharp.
The Sliding Head is another emphatic variant of the Falling Head, because it always expresses the speaker's personal involvement or concern, eg:
U Vhate Vdoing xnothing.
Even greater emphasis can be added by having a High Fall on each stressed syllable in the head, eg:
M xhate xdoing xnothing.
The emphatic variant of the Rising Head is called climb-i n g because there is a series of rises in it on each stressed syllable, eg:
/How did you /manage to /do xthat?
The Low Level Head gives a very detached, cool, unsatisfied and disapproving shade of meaning to the utterance normally pronounced with the Medium Level Head, eg:
Why ^should you 'talk to me like vthat?
The same utterance pronounced on a high level note will sound very angry and even indignant, eg:
Why "* should you 'talk to me like 4hat?
It is quite certain that the emphasis is often achieved not only by modifying one section of the pitch-and-stress pattern, but also by combining the modifications in pre-heads, heads and nuclear tones.
The pitch-and-stress sections of intonation can be roughly divided into non-emphatic and emphatic (see page 162).
Гь1
Falling Head
Quot;V
j_________ Lu.
High Level Head
J^ul
Medium Level Head
eg Statements: |
It was xterrible. (No Head)
It was an exHremely 'difficult
tcase. (F. H.)*
I was "* awfully xsorry. (H. L. H.)
Special questions: |
v Where did you 'go to vschool?
(F. H.f
-►What can I ,do for you?
(H. L. H.)
Imperatives (commands): Exclamations: |
vCome and see me to,morrow.
(F. H.)
~* Come to my xplace. (H. L. H.)
What a vbeautiful 'little x garden!
(F. H.)
"* What x nonsense! (H. L. H.)
Note: The most common way of asking general questions v. with the Low Rise, but when said with the Low Fall, they are pu forward as a serious suggestion or a subject for an urgent discus sion, eg:
Shall we postpone it then? (H. H.) |
{
Abbreviations used here and further in the text:
H.H. — High Head
F. H. — Falling Head
St. H. — Stepping Head
SI. H. — Sliding Head
Sc. H. — Scandent Head
L. L. H.— Low Level Head
M. L. H. — Medium Level Head
H. L. H. — High Level Head R. H. — Rising Head CI. H. — Climbing Head H. Pr. H. — High Pre-Head H. Pr. N. — High Pre-Nucleus H. Falls — High Falls
OCCASIONAL NON-EMPHATIC USAGE
Pattern Four.The speaker pronouncing phrases with Low Level Head + Low Fallsounds cool, calm, detached, reserved, sometimes unsympathetic and disapproving;
eg Statements: There's _, nothing to 'get upxset a.bout.
Special questions: _»Why don't you 'say vplease?
Imperatives _,Let me have a vshot at it.
(commands):
Note; Exclamations are practically never used with this pattern.
COMMON EMPHATIC USAGE
Pattern Five.The Stepping Headwith the Low Fallsounds also definite and complete as patterns of common unemphatic usage only more categoric, weighty and serious; sometimes even unsympathetic, defying and scolding:
— • •
eg Statements: I've v told you 'more than 'once to
'stop xsmoking.
Special questions: ^What did you de'cide to 'do ,that for?
Imperatives v Don't go 'there with'out vanybody. •'
(commands):
Exclamations: ^ What an e'normous 'piece of ^cake!
Pattern Six.The Sliding Headwith the Low Fallexpresses concern and personal involvement:
^..
^..
^..
^
eg Statements: 4 ^ hate ^ doing ^nothing.
Special questions: v Why did you v go v there by ^ train?
Imperatives v Stop v making that v dreadful vdin.
(commands):
Note: Exclamations and general questions are very rare with this pattern.
OCCASIONAL EMPHATIC USAGE
Pattern Seven.The Scandent Headwith the Low Fallsounds self-satisfied, playful, joyful and deligtited:
S
XJL.
eg Statements: It's a very satis'factory ^answer.
Special questions: ^Why did you de'cide to 'live in
the ^country?
Exclamations: vWhat a 'pretty 'little ^orchard!
Note: Imperatives and general questions are very rare with this pattern.
Pattern Eight.The High Pre-Nucleuswith the Low Fallsounds very emphatic, the more the high pitch of the pre-head contrasts "with the Low Fall the more emotional and concerned the phrase sounds:
2^
eg Statements: "1 xdon't be.lieve it.
Special questions: "Why xdid you ,do it?
Imperatives "Don't vrush me. i
(commands):
Exclamations: "What ^nonsense!
Note: General questions asked with this pattern sound very insistent, serious and doubtful, eg:
"Is he vreally so dull?
Group I. Pattern* and Meaning (Summary)
Patterns | Meaning |
Common Non-Emphatic Usage | |
Pattern One (No Head.) Pattern Two (F. H.) Pattern Three (H. L. H. or M. L. H.) | definite, complete final, categoric firm |
Occasional Non-Emphatic Usage | |
Pattern Four (L. L. H.) | cool, calm, detached, reserved, unsympathetic, disapproving |
Common Emphatic Usage | |
Pattern Five (St. H.) Pattern Six (SI. H.) | categoric, weighty, serious, unsympathetic, defying, scolding concerned, personally involved |
Occasional Emphatic Usage | |
Pattern Seven (Sc. H.) Pattern Eight (H. Pr. N.) | self-satisfied, playful, joyful, delighted very emotional and emphatic |
..-••-••_..
1.
eg Statements: I Vhaven't had 'time to 'read the
re'port.
Special questions: VVVhen are we 'going to 'see you in our 'place a'gain?
Imperatives I Buy your'self an um'brella.
(commands):
Exclamations: VBetter 'late than 'never!
Pattern Six.The Sliding Headwith the High Fallis mostly used as it's intense emphatic variant — several High Fallswithin one intonation group. It has all the above-mentioned attitudes but the emphasis is still more intensified.
7vv
eg Statements: rvex*neverxbeenxthereinxmyxlife.
Special questions: VWhy дге you so xangry with him?
Imperatives ^Don't be xtooxsure.
(commands):
Exclamations: What an extraordinaryx piece of
Muck!
Pattern Seven.The Climbing Headwith the High Fallhas the same attitudes as the Rising Head,only the emphasis being intensified:
eg Statements: I .can't af. ford to xbuy it.
Special questions: .What's that .got to .do with vyou?
Imperatives .Write and .ask them to .send you
(commands): axnother one.
Exclamations: «What a .pity you .didn't say so
x sooner.
Pattern Eight.Phrases with the Scandent Head + HighFall also sound playful, self-satisfied, smug, awed and delighted (as in Group I) but the emphasis is intensified:
eg Statements: VNever been 'known to xfail.
Special questions: vWhen did he a'rrive in x England?
Imperatives vTell him to 'come to my ^office.
(commands):
Exclamations: ^What an ex'traordinary 'thing to
xdo!
Pattern Nine. High Pre-Nucleus + High Fallhas the same attitudes as Pattern One (Low Pre-Nucleus + High Fall),the meaning being intensified:
I • * i
eg Statements:
Special questions: Imperatives
(commands): Exclamations:
It'simvp°ssible. What'svwrongwith it? Don't* mention it.
What av shame!
Group II. Patterns and Meaning (Summary)
Patterns | Meaning |
Comm | on EmphaticUsage |
Pattern One (No Head.) | final; categoric, light, airy |
Pattern Two (F. H.) | warm, brisk, interested |
Pattern Three (H. L. H. or M. L. H.) | conveying personal concern or involvement; (in general questions) insistent and business-like |
Pattern Four (R. H.) | protesting, querulous, disapproving; (in special questions, imperatives and exclamations) with a note of critical, unpleasant or affronted surprise |
Occasu | >nal Emphatic Usage |
Pattern Five (St. H.) | serious, concerned, weighty, edifying, instructive and scolding |
Pattern Six (SI. H. or High Falls) | the same attitudes intensified |
Pattern Seven (CI. H.) | the same attitudes as in Pattern Four. only the emphasis being intensified |
Pattern Eight (Sc. H.) | playful, self-satisfied, smug, awed, joyful (the same attitudes as in Group 1, only more emphatic) |
Pattern Nine (H. Pr. N.) | the same attitudes as in Pattern One, only more emphatic |
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
I
1. Why do all the patterns with the High Fall sound emphatic?
2. What are the attitudes expressed in Patterns One, Two, Three?
3. Suppose general questions are asked with the High Fall. How would they sound? Give your own examples.
4. Give your own examples with several High Falls within an intonation group. Explain what attitudes are conveyed in them.
5. Suppose you want to sound playful, delighted, smug, self-satisfied and very emphatic. What pattern would you choose for this purpose?
6. How do intonation groups and sentences sound being pronounced with the Rising Head + the High Fall?
7. Does the use of the Climbing Head with the same sentence intensify the meaning?
GROUP III. RISE-FALL
I
Patterns
Occasional
emphatic
usage
One. (Low Pre-Nucleus +) Rise Fall (+Tail)
Two. (LowPre-Head +) Falling Head + Rise Fall ( + Tail)
Three. (Low or High Pre-Head +) High (Medium) Level
Head + Rise-Fall ( +Tail) Four.(Low Pre-Head +) SteppingHead + Rise-Fall
( + Tail)
Patterns One, Two, Three (No Head, Falling Head, High or Medium Level Head)sound impressed, awed, self-satisfied,
sometimes challenging:
___________ !_______
J ________ ________
L.* Л..1_____ L.
eg Statements: It's A marvellous. (No Head)
I've vnever seen 'anything Mike it.
(F. H.) It was more ~* difficult than I'd л thought. (H. L H.)
Special questions: |
AWhodidit? (No Head)
vWhat 'difference does A that make?
(F. H.) ~* How on earth should AI know?
(H. L. H.) Look л here. (No Head)
Imperatives (commands): Exclamations: |
vTry a 'different A method. (F. H.) Well ~* ask him aA gain then. (H. L. H.)
Of л course I can! (No Head) "•How 'very peA culiar! (F. H.) "*How very A nice of you! (H. L. H.)
Pattern Four.The Stepping Head + Rise-Fallsounds censorious, antagonistic, disclaiming responsibility.
Л
He can vthink what he 'jolly well A likes.
Special questions: vWhy don't you 'do 'something aA bout it?
Imperatives vDon't 'make so 'much A fuss
(commands): about it.
Exclamations: If vonly you'd 'taken some 'expert
ad A vice!
eg Statements:
Group III. Patterns and Meaning (Summary)
Patterns | Meaning |
Pattern One (No Head.) Pattern Two (F. H.) Pattern Three (H. L. or M. L. H.) Pattern Four (St. H.) | impressed, awed, self-satisfied, challenging censorious, antagonistic, disclaiming responsibility |
High Pre-Nucleus
JLU-i
Verbal Context eg It's very cold here.
I arrived this morning.
Won't your wife be rather cross?
Response
r Shouldn't the ^doors be
r double 'locked? Did . someone T meet you at
the 'station? T Won't she be T cross with
'me?
Croup V | Patterns andMeaning (Summary) |
Patterns | Meaning |
Common Emphatic Usage | |
Pattern One (No Head) Pattern Two (H. L. H. or M. L. H.) Pattern Three (R. H.) | echoing, repeating the speaker's message in statements or questions, calling for the repetition of the information already given, trying to elicit a repetition, light, airy, casual unpleasantly surprised, puzzled, sis-approving, disbelieving, threatening |
Occasional Emphatic Usage | |
Pattern Four (CI. H.) | the same attitudes as in Pattern Three, the emphasis being intensified |
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What patterns of Group V are commonly used? Why are they
emphatic?
2. What attitudes are conveyed by Patterns One, Two?
3. Suppose you are asked: "How are echoing or repeated questions pronounced in English?" What would your answer be?
4. Give your own examples illustrating the intonation of Patterns One, Two, Three.
5. What attitude does a speaker express when he speaks with the
Rising Head + High Rise intonation?
6. How is the emphasis intensified by using Climbing Head +
High Rise?
GROUP VI. FALL-RISE AND HIGHFALL + RISE IN EMPHATIC USAGE
Common non-emphatic usage | Patterns |
One. (Low Pre-Nucleus + ) Fall-Rise ( + Tail) Two. (Low Pre-Head + ) Falling Head + Fall-Rise ( + Tail) | |
Common emphatic usage | Three. (Low Pre-Head + ) High (Medium) Level Head 4- High Fall + Rise ( + Tail) Four. (Low Pre-Head + ) Sliding Head (High Falls) + High Fall + Rise ( + Tail) |
Occasional emphatic usage | Five. High Pre-Nucleus + High Fa!) + Rise ( + Tail) |
/
COMMON NON-EMPHATIC USAGE
Patterns One, Two (No Head, Falling Head).Statements with these patterns sound grudgingly admitting, contradicting, dissenting, reproachful, apologetic.
Questions sound insistent, pleading, plaintive; imperatives are urgently warning.
"V
No Head |
Falling Head
eg Statements:
I ^hope ,50. (No Head) I'm avfraid I 'don't 'want to v dance. (F. H.)
General questions: Special questions: Imperatives: |
Is it vreally ;nice? (No Head) Do you vever 'go to the 'South by v train? (F. H.)
vWhom did you 'want me to invvite ,here? (F. H.)
Be xquick ,then. (No Head) ^ Don't say I 'didn't xwarn ,you. (F. H.)
Note: Exclamations are very rarely used with the Fall-Rise.
I
COMMON EMPHATIC USAGE
Pattern Three. High (Mediurii) Level Head with High Fall+ Risesounds apologetic, appreciative, grateful, regretful, sympathetic, pleading, reproachful, plaintive, reassuring, encouraging,
Sliding Head
» .. .«.
High Falls
-/.
■у Statements:
General questions:
Special questions:
Imperatives:
It's vno use v trying to v shout me
vdown. (SI. H.) It's *no use booking for it ,here.
(H. Falls)
Do you v often vwalk the v streets
so vlate? (SI. H.) *Did you x really mind my Helling
,Eve? (H. Falls)
vWhy did you v leave the v party
so vsoon? (SI. H.) xWhat do you 4hink of * Peter's
, painting? (H. Falls)
Be v careful when you vcross
the v road. (SI. H.) xDon't xsay I didn't vwarn ,you.
(H. Falls)
Note: Exclamations are very rare with this pattern.
OCCASIONAL EMPHATIC USAGE
PatternFive. High Pre- Nucleus + High Fall + Rise (+ Tail).
Phrases with this pattern sound more emphatic than when said with Pattern One, but express the same meaning.
.
eg Statements:
Special questions: General questions: Imperatives: Exclamations:
" I vdon't ,like it.
~ Why Mid you .ring her,up?
~ Is she vreally 7pretty?
~ Be xfair ,to her.
~ Good vmorning, ,Janet!
Group VI. Patternsand Meaning (Summary)
Patterns | Meaning |
Common Non-Emphatic Usage | |
Pattern One (no Head) Pattern Two (F. H.) | In statements — grudgingly admitting, contradicting, dissenting, reproachful, apologetic; in questions — insistent. plaintive, pleading; in imperatives — urgently warning |
Common Emphatic Usage | |
Pattern Three (H. L. H. or M. L. H. + High Fall + Rise) Pattern Four (SI. H. + Fall-Rise or H. Falls + High Fall + Rise) | apologetic, appreciative, grateful, regretful, sympathetic, pleading, reproachful, plaintive, reassuring, encouraging concerned, reproachful, hurt, grudgingly admitting, persuasively reassuring, regretful; in questions — pleading. |
Occasional Emphatic Usage | |
Pattern Five (H. Pr. N. + High Fall + Rise) | more emphatic than when said with Pattern One |
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What attitudes are conveyed by a speaker when he uses Rise-
. Fall-Rise Group pattern?
2. Draw the scales with the patterns on the blackboard. Illustrate them with your own examples. Define the attitudes expressed.
3. Compare the attitudes expressed in Patterns of Groups VI and VII. Which are more emphatic?
I
GROUP VIII. MID-LEVEL
Common non-emphaticusage | Patterns |
One. (Low Pre-Head) + Mid-Level (+Tail) Two. (Low Pre-Head) + High Level (Medium Level) Head -1- Mid-Level ( + Tail) |
Patterns:
Pattern One.(No Head) Pattern Two.(High Level Head) (Medium Level Head)
If the Mid-Level patterns are used in non-final intonation groups they express non-finality, imply continuation without any special attitude. They are also very common in poetry, to express on-finality, to keep the verses go smoothly on. In final intona-юп groups they are very rare; sometimes possible with statements and exclamations giving an impression of calling out to someone as if at a distance, eg:
•> Sometimes 11 xhate it. (No Head)
* Dinner's > ready. (H. H.)
> Jack and > Gill | went - up the xhill. (H. H.) It will ~* probably be >wiser | to "* wait till x Saturday. (M. L. H.)
Group VIII. Patterns and Meaning (Summary)
Patterns | Meaning |
Pattern One,. (No Head) Pattern Two (H. H. or M. L. H.) | express non-finality, imply continuation, give the impression of calling out to someone as if at a distance |
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. Where and how are the patterns of Group VIII used? -
2. What is the function of the Mid-Level patterns m poetry, in non-final intonation groups, in final intonation groups?
1. Give your own examples for these patterns. Intone them. Define the attitude of the speaker.
I----------- -------- ~
T
Ш 1. Exclamations are very common with the High Fall (either ь no head or with some commonly used heads), eg:
!xnificent. (No Head)
it an ex-* traordinary piece of Muck. (H. L. H.)
I 2. For exclamations which refer to something not very excit-■r>g or unexpected the low falling tone is used (either with no • b'<id or with the heads of common usage), eg:
^at's ytiice. (M |
L. H.) nderful. (No Head)
They are also used with the Low Fall or the High Fall preced-fd by the High Pre-Nucleus. With all these patterns they are ■ emphatic and emotional, eg:
hat vnonsense. n,x there you are.
Intonation Patterns and Exclamations | |
(Summary) | |
1. (Low Pre-Nucleus +) High Fall (+ Tail) | very emphatic and |
(Low Pre-Head +) Falling Head + High Fall | emotional |
( + Tail) | |
(Low Pre-Head +) High (Medium) Level | |
Head + High Fall + Tail) | |
High Pre-Nucleus + Low Fall (+Tail) | |
High Pre-Nucleus + High Fall | + Tail) |
Continued
2. (Low Pre-Nucleus +) Low Fall (+ Tail) | not very excited |
(Low Pre-Head +) Falling Head + Low Fall | or unexpectedly |
(+Tail) | unsurprised |
(Low Pre-Head + ) High (Medium! Level | |
Head + Low Fall (+ Tail) |
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE USE OF SOME CONVERSATIONAL FORMULAS _____________
1. For leave takings and some greetings use the low rising
tone (usually with no Head or High Level Head), eg:
~ He,llo. || -»Good ,night. ^
2. For casual 'Thank you' and 'Sorry' use the Low Rise, eg: /Thanks. || /Thank you.
3. When 'Thank you' expresses real gratitude and 'Sorry' sincere apology use the High Fall, eg:
v Thank you, Mary.
4. The phrase 'Excuse me' arresting someone's attention is
used with the Fall-Rise, eg:
Exvcuse ,me, | Vwhere is the 'nearest vtube station?
QUESTIONS AND TASKS _______________________________________ 1
1. Enumerate the main sentence types in English. '1
2. What patterns do the English use with statements to makl them complete, definite or final.
3. If you want to sound soothing, encouraging or questioning what patterns would you use in statements? Give your own examples.
4. How does the use of the Fall-Rise change the common meaning of a statement? Illustrate it by your own examples.
5. Suppose you ask your friend about something and want 4 sound friendly or sympathetically interested. What pattern? would you choose for that purpose?
6. By what patterns is the business-like interest expressed?
7. What can you say about the intonation of echoing or repeat-
ed special questions? Give your own examples.
8. Why are general questions often called 'Yes-No' questions?
9. What are the most common intonation patterns for general questions?
10. If you want to put a general question as a subject for urgent
discussion or a serious suggestion what patterns would you prefer for the purpose?
11. How would you subdivide imperatives from the point of view of the attitudinal meanings expressed in them? Give the contrasted pairs with command-request intonation. Show how the meaning is changed.
12. How are the emphatic exclamations pronounced?
13. Suppose you are not very much excited. How would you exclaim in response to something not unexpected to you?
------------ 1
( hapter IV. SEQUENCE OF TONES
—- i
In sentences containing more than one intonation group almost any combination of terminal tones is possible. Here are the most common sequences of tones in unemotional speech:
Low Fall + Low Fall | Low Rise + Low Rise |
Low Rise I | Low Fall + Low Rise* |
+ Low Fall | |
Mid Level J |
QUESTIONS
Ь., jv
m:L
Л
«s*>
1. The most common pattern for a disjunctive question is the Low Fall in the first intonation group (a statement) followed by the Low Rise in the tag question, eg:
It is quite x simple, | ,isn't it?
The pattern with the Low Rise of the tag question implies a mixture of positiveness and doubt, though it is quite clear that the speaker inclines to one view rather than the other and that the listener's agreement with that view is expected. But the speaker would not be very surprised if he were contradicted.
The Low Fall in the second intonation group shows that the speaker demands agreement from the listener, eg:
He is a xclever man, | x isn't he?
Note: In conversational English these tags have lost their questioning function and are often used formally. In these cases • they are pronounced with a very short pause and require no answer: -»Lovely xday, ^ ,isn't it.
2. In some cases the first intonation group can be pronounced with the Low Rise or the Fall-Rise. When the first intonation group ends with the Low Rise the Low Fall in the second intonation group appeals for confirmation or support. The Low Fall in the tag is the sort of pattern which is often used in talking to a child.
The second Low Rise may exactly echo the first in the statement. The first intonation group with the Low Rise sounds protesting, calling the listener to revise his opinion, while the rise in the tag question manifests uncertainty, eg:
They will,come, | ,won't they?
Alternative Questions
An alternative question indicating choice between two homogeneous parts is usually represented by two intonation ((roups. The most usual way of pronouncing alternative ques-
aons is to use the Low Rise in the first intonation group and the Low Fall in the second one, eg:
Have you a ,son | or a vdaughter?
L
L
The final Low Fall in this type of question shows that the choice should be made of the two items expressed.
There may be, of course, a choice of three or more alternatives. In this case the intonation groups preceding the final one are pronounced with the Low Rise as they may be treated as items of enumeration. The final intonation group has the Low Fall, eg:
Would you like ,milk. J ,tea | or xcoffee?
L
A
Note: Alternative questions should not be mixed up with general questions which are pronounced with a rising tone at the end, cf:
Have you a ,son | or a ^daughter?
Have you a "* son or a,daughter? (Have you any children?)
In colloquial speech alternative questions can be reduced to one intonation group.
Imperatives
Question tags, mostly 'will you?." or 'won't you?' are frequently combined with imperatives forming the following tone sequences.
V
у -1л Л- ^1л Лу
1. An often heard pattern of an imperative sentence consisting of two intonation, groups has the Low Fall in the imperative itself and the Low Rise in the question tag, eg:
~*Sitxdown, | ,won"t you?
The positive tag question with the low rising terminal tone serves to soften the imperative of the first intonation group, to
transform an order into something, more request-like. The negative tag question with a low rising tone sounds pressing. In both cases the imperative itself is in the positive form.
2. Another possible case to pronounce such an imperative is
to use low falling tones in both intonation groups, eg:
"* Stand xstill. | vwillyou?
This imperative sentence with a tag question is parallel to '"* Stand t still, | vplease.'
Such usage of two falling tones is heard in circumstances of considerable exasperation to the speaker.
3. The next sequence of tones consists of a combination of
•Low Rise + Low Fall' or 'Fall-Rise -I- Low Fall', eg:
~*Stop making,noise, | xwill you?
VDon't 'leave your x things jthere, | xwill you!
If the first part of the imperative is positive the tag may be both positive and negative, but with negative imperatives only a positive tag is possible.
Imperatives pronounced with this sequence of tones sound less brisk than those pronounced with Low Fall + Low Fall and more pleading, especially because of the Fall-Rise.
4. In the combination of 'Low Rise + Low Rise* in imperative
sentences the tag question seems to be like an afterthought, eg:
"* Pass me the ,5311, [ ;will you?
Note: The combination of 'Low Fall + Low Fall' or the 'Low Rise + Low Fall* with the positive imperative is an emphatic device used to underline or reinforce the meaning of it, eg:
"* Stand x still. | ^will you!
-• Stand, still. | xwill you! /
INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE
There are sentence elements which are connected with the sentence rather semantically than grammatically, i. e. interjections, direct address and parentheses.
I
COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES
I
Compound and complex sentences consisting of a number of clauses represent potentially the same number of intonation groups which under certain linguistic circumstances may become actual intonation groups.
THE DISTINCTIVE FUNCTION OF SENTENCE-STRESS ______________
Sentence-stress is capable of differentiating the actual meaning of the sentence and its syntactical structure, cf:
1. I ~* thought he was x married. I x thought he was married.
2. It is the V country that 'suits my "wife xbest. It is the ^country that .suits my ,wife .best.
3. I Please 'wire if I am to xcome. ~* Please xwire if I am to .come.
4. You for"*get yourself. 5 You for x get yourself.
5. VWhy are you 'reading xJohnson? ~* Why are you ^reading, Johnson?
Sentence-stress very often differentiates the attitude of the speaker, cf:
1. I -* like xBetty. 2. "* How did he xknow?
I xlike Betty. How xdid he know?
Comparison of the accentual structure of some particular types of phrases and word combinations in English and in Russian.
1. In English general questions the final stress falls on the
adverbials or on direct objects following the verb, in Russian it is
on the verb, cf:
VDo you 'speak,English? Вы говорите по-английски?
I Have you 'been to the, Вы бывали на Урале?
, Urals?
VWill you 'go ;1юте? Ты пойдёшь домой?
2. The English negative particle not generally takes the stress
while in the Russian language the particle не remains unstressed,
cf:
He did Vnot 'say a xword. Он не сказал ни слбва.
VMum is 'not xangry with Мама не сердится на тебя.
you.
3. In English the final stress does not fall on the last element in the word combinations: and so on, and so forth, in a day or two, in a week or two, cf:
He will "* come in a xday | Он придет через день или | |
or two. | два. | |
And xso on. | И так далее. | |
4. The conjunction | as.. | .as is not stressed in English, cf: |
She is as "* pretty as | Она так же хороша, как и | |
her vmother. | ее мать. | |
You I know it as 'well | Ты знаешь это так же, как | |
as VI do. | ий. |
5. The word good is not generally stressed in the expressions:
Good morning, good afternoon, good evening when greeting a
person, but it is on leave-taking, cf:
Good ^morning, Mr. White! Доброе утро, мистер Уайт!
'Good ,night! Дбброй нбчи!
6. The word street when used in the names of streets is not
stressed in English, cf:
You'll "* find it in x Oxford Они живут на улице
Street. They ~* live in Гбрького.
v Gorky Street.
Recommendations.When practising reading think over every sentence. Analyse the context. Find and underline the communicative centre in each phrase. Mark stresses and tunes. In a continuous discourse there should be no separation between the words, they are run together in the same way as syllables of a word are. The exclusive use of strong forms in ordinary speech is undoubtedly a fault and should be avoided. Be very careful to weaken and obscure unstressed words properly. Try to make your reading and speech convincing and expressive enough.
Mistakes of Russian Learners.The laws of logical selection of sentence-stress in English and in Russian are practically the same. The first thing to do is to find the most important word in each phrase and make it prominent. Underline the elements of contrast, where necessary, and leave in shade the ideas already mentioned or understood. The purpose of logical stress in many cases is to remove ambiguity and to avoid monotony.
Note the difference between the phrases below:
Wrong: Mr. ~* Neten is xhere j but I Vdon't 'see Mrs. xNelson. Correct and convining: Mr. ~* Nelson is Nhere | but I Vdon't
'see vMrs. Nelson. Wrong: I ~* don't mderxstand her. || You Vdon't 'want to
underx start her. Correct and convining: I ~* don't understand her. || You
~* don't/want to understand her.
Chapter VI. TEMPO OF SPEECH
By speech tempowe mean the relativespeed (of slowness) of utterance which is measured by the rate of syllable succession and the number and duration of pauses in a sentence. The average rate of delivery may contain from about two to four syllables per second for slow speech (lento), from about three to six syllables for normal speech, and from about five to nine syllables for fast speech (allegro). *
ЛЧ
Every speaker has a norm which characterises his usual individual style of utterance. Some people speak more quickly, some more slowly; some people use more variations of tempo than others. Tempo is a feature, which like loudness can be varied from time to time by the individual speaker.
The rate of speaking varies constantly. When two strongly stressed syllables occur close together, it is slower; when they are separated by unstressed syllables the speed is faster. The speed of utterance becomes slower or faster according to the number of unstressed syllables between the stressed ones.
Differences of rate are used to help the listener to differentiate the more important (slow rate) and the less important (fast rate) parts of the utterances, eg:
I want you to understand that it is very important.
We slow the last part of the sentence down and lengthen out the syllables to get a stronger impression than if we say it at normal speed. An increase in the speed of the utterance may show it is less important, eg:
His own plan, he now saw,would fall through.
Rate also performs emotional and attitudinal functions. It varies according to the emotional state of the speaker and the attitude conveyed. Fast rate, for instance, may be associated with anger, scolding, etc., eg:
Where's the hammer? What did you do with the hammer?
"* Great vheaven! | xSeven of you, £ "* gaping vround there, |
and you x don't know j what I ~*did with the x hammer. ||
(Jerome K. Jerome. "Three Men in a Boat")
Slower than normal rate may be associated with anger, doubt, blame, accusation, etc., eg:
Mrs. Warren (passionately): 'What's the use of my going to
bed? Do you think I could sleep?' Voice: 'Why not? I shall.' Mrs. Warren: AYoul || "*You've no 'heart.
(B. Shaw. "Mrs. Warren's Profession")
Variations of rate of speech and pausation are closely connected with different phonetic styles, shades of meaning and the structure of the intonation group.
Rate is varied by the speaker in accordance with the situation in which he is involved. The speaker should always choose the proper rate suitable for the occasion, if he wants to be clearly understood. A teacher will speak to a group of beginners learning English at a slower rate than when he speaks to a native speaker. Rate should be adapted to the content of the ideas expressed. and the phonetic style. It should always be slow enough to attract the attention of the listeners and at the same time be rapid enough to sustain interest.
By pause we generally mean an act of stopping in the flow of speech. In speaking or reading aloud, we make pauses from time to time. These pauses break our speech or texts into paragraphs, sentences, intonation groups. In English there are three main degrees of pauses: unit pause (one-unit), double (two-unit) and treble (three-unit) pause. The length of pauses is relative and is correlated with the rate of speech and rhythmicality norms of an individual.
The unit pause is the interval of an individual's rhythm cycle from one syllable to the next, within a constant rate. It is used to separate intonation groups, eg:
I'd rather stay at home to-night, j unless I feel better. ||
The double pause is approximately twice as long as the unit pause, it is used to separate sentences, eg:
Good afternoon, Mrs. White. || How are you? || Very well indeed, thank you. | j
The treble pause, which is about three times longer than the unit pause, is used to separate paragraphs.
In cases when the presence of a short pause is almost impossible to determine a wavy vertical line is used. There may be in fact no stop of phonation. The effect of pausation is due to the interval in pitch at the intonation group junction, eg:
So they sat ^ by the firelight. ^ in the silence, | one on each side of the hearth. 11
(J. Galsworthy. "The Man of Property")
A short interval of silence, an intermission arising from doubt or uncertainty, a hesitation caused by different emotions, forget-fulness, one's wish to think over what to say next is called a hesitation pause. It is a mere stop of phonation, or it may
be filled with so-called temporizers (hesitation fillers) such as; you see, you know, I mean; I mean to say, so to speak, Well, etc. Very common hesitation fillers are also: um—ah—eh—erm—er, eg:
You can find him, I think, in the library.
What a shame—poor darling; look here, I'll—er—see if I can buy another pair for you.
I
QUESTIONS AND TASKS .,-,
1. What is speech tempo? Щ
2. What degrees of speech rate do you know? |
3. What is the speed of any unstressed syllables preceding thl stressed ones?
4. What is the speed of any unstressed syllables following the stressed one? Л
5. What determines the average rate of utterance? 1
6. How does the speed of utterance depend on the correlatiojj of stressed and unstressed syllables? Щ
7. How does a change in the rate of speech influence the lengtff of English vowels?
8. Can variations of tempo differentiate the more important and( the less important parts of the utterance?
9. Does tempo vary according to the emotional state of the speaker?
10. What kind of rate may be associated with such negative emotions as: anger, scolding, accusation, etc.?
11. Is slow rate (lento) used to express blame, anger, etc.?
12. What is the function of pausation?
13. Do pauses differ in length?
14. What are the main kinds of pauses in English and how are
they marked?
( hapter VII. RHYTHM
Г
Rhythm is generally measured in regular flow of speech in which stressed and unstressed syllables occur at definite intervals.
There are two kinds of speech rhythm: syllable-timed rhythm iind stress-timed rhythm. Every language in the world is spoken with one kind of rhythm or with the other. Each language has developed its own characteristic speech rhythm. French and Japanese, for example, are syllable-timed languages, they depend J on the principle that all syllables are of equal value. In these lan-, (juages the syllables follow each other with fairly equal length 1 .wid force; and We feel an even rhythm, based on the smooth [ How of syllables without a strong contrast of stress. To an En-I qlish-speaking person this kind of rhythm sounds mechanically regular. English pronounced with such a rhythm would be hard lo understand.
Rhythm in English, Russian and some other stress-timed languages is based primarily on the alteration of strongly and weakly stressed syllables. Within each intonation group the stressed ••«Uables occur at fairly equal intervals of time, eg
ne 'Two "Three xFour.
This means that if there are any unstressed syllables between tressed ones, they have to be fitted in without delaying the regular beat, eg:
v. One 'Two 'Three ^Four. One and 'Two and 'Three and tFour. 'ne and a 'Two and a 'Three and a vFour.
The unstressed syllables, whether many or few, occupy ap->ximately the same time between the stresses. The greater Tiber of unstressed syllables there is between the stressed es the more weakly and rapidly they are pronounced. The un-essed vowels in this case have a noticeably different quality — ry are shortened and weakened, eg:
l he Vstudents are 'interested in im'proving their ,speech ythm. [дэ Vstjiuiants эг 'mtrastid in im'pravirj деэ xspL*tf ,ndm].
In English as well as in Russian words of more Ithan one syllable have one or more stressed syllables. Every English word has a definite place for the stress and it cannot be changed. The correct stressing of polysyllabic words helps to secure the recurrence of stress which with the other factors, results in correct speech rhythm.
The difference between rhythmicality in English and Russian lies in the following.
In Russian almost all the words of an intonation group are stressed, eg:
Всё наши студенты поехали в стройотряд.
In English the rhythmic structure is different — all the notional words are stressed, the form-words are fitted in between the stressed ones.
The pronunciation of intonation groups is oased upon rhythmic groups which are formed by one or more words closely connected by sense and grammar, but containing only one strongly stressed syllable. The unstressed syllables are attached either to the preceding or to the following stressed one depending on their semantic or grammatical relationship.
A rhythmic group may consist of a single word, eg: yesterday; or it may contain several words, eg: I've vread it, or x Thank you.
If there are any initial unstressed syllables, they are attached to the first rhythmic group. The unstressed syllables preceding the stressed ones are pronounced very quickly, the vowels in them are shortened (obscured), eg: He xworks. He can xwork. He was at 4work.
The unstressed syllables that follow the stressed ones are pronounced rather quickly. They form a cluster with stressed syllables. And it takes equal time to pronounce the stressed syllable plus any given number of the following unstressed syllables before the next stress, eg: 'six, 'sixty, 'sixtieth.
The influence of rhythm is very important. The time given to each rhythmic group tends to be unchanged though the number of unstressed syllables may be many or few. Each rhythmic group within an intonation group is given the same amount of time. If there are many unstressed syllables in a rhythmic group, they must be pronounced more quickly. This regularity of rhythm may be seen in the following examples, eg:
(a) At the ~* bottom of xKent Road.
At the "* bottom of x Kenton Road.
At the "* bottom of x Kensington Road.
(b) She's the xbest girl. She's the x nicest girl. She's the x happiest girl.
(c) He Vcan't 'quite x manage it.
I Vdoubt if 'he can x manage it.
I Vdon't really 'think he can x manage it.
Some words in unstressed positions are reduced to their weak forms of pronunciation, eg:
You can Vget there by 'bus from x Gorky Street. [jo kn Vget оеэ bai 'bAS fram vgo:ki strut]
The words with double stress may lose the first stress when preceded by another strongly stressed syllable, or they may lose the second stress when followed by another strongly stressed syllable, eg: 'seven'teen, 'number seven'teen, 'seventeen 'pencils.
Compounds having a double stress are influenced by rhythm in the following way:
When used finally, preceded by unstressed syllables or when used between unstressed syllables, the compounds have double stress, eg: It was ~* first xclass. It was ~*old-x fashioned. There were "* fifteen of them.
When preceded by a stressed syllable the compounds are stressed on the second element, eg: They are "^all first-x dass. It is ~*too old-x fashioned.
When used as attributes before nouns stressed on the first syllable, the stress falls on the first element of the compound, eg: It's ~* home-made Jam. She's a ~* good-looking xgirl.
Words in the sentence may lose their stress: '"*Find xout for me.* 'He ~* didn't xsay so.' But, *~*Why didn't you 'find out xsoon-er in which didn't and our have lost their stress under the influence of rhythm.
All nouns are notional words and are usually stressed. However, when two nouns occur together, the first being used attrib utively, the second is not stressed, eg: 'film star, 'mother car, 'tt'l ephone book, etc.
But if the second noun is polysyllabic it must be stressed. '•</ picture 'gallery, de'tective 'story, 'English 'teacher, etc.
II*
Most verbs are notional words. In a combination of a verb and an adverb both normally receive stress, eg: 'take 'up, 'take 'off, 'put 'on.
Adverbs lose the stress when preceded by a stressed syllable, eg: '"* Put your xhat on', but 'Put it xon'; in the second case the adverb is stressed because it is preceded by an unstressed syllable.
To acquire a good English speech rhythm one should arrange sentences into intonation groups and then into rhythmic groups; link every word beginning with a vowel to the preceding word; weaken unstressed words and syllables, obscuring the vowels in them; making the stressed syllables occur regularly within an intonation group.
I
12. Why is it necessary to make a point of saying phrases with a
smooth transition from one word to the next, wherever the second word begins with a vowel?
13. What would you advise your fellow-student to do if he finds
it difficult to join words smoothly without inserting a glottal stop before a stressed vowel within a word or at junction of words?
14. In what way will you pronounce the sentence — 'That's the second time you've made a mistake'? Make it sound rhythmically correct.
15. Ask your fellow-student to divide the sentences into rhythmic
groups. If he makes mistakes, tell him how to eliminate his errors, eg: John's away on business; Thank you for the letter; They went for a walk in the park.
16. What recommendations should you give your fellow-student
to enable him to acquire a good English speech rhythm?
Part Six
Phonostylistics
Г ■■ ■- -i
Now I "♦ think there are vFOUR ] .ROUGHLY ;SPEAKING ] 'FOUR PURPOSES |з:| which I Vwant to dis'cuss very .BRIEFLY. || The 'FIRST .purpose of ASSESSMENT } >IS | if I may "* use a DE'ROGATORY /TERM } - purely ADMINISTRATIVE. ] Now I Vdon't want to 'cause any' OF'FENSE ,HERE^but I Vmust make it 'quite ,CLEAR } that I .THINK} that we >HAVE in this > COUNTRY and ~* elsewhere ,STILL } ~* much too .MUCH } psychological VTESTING, } "* much too much ASSESSMENT ? the V purpose of ^nich is ADMINISTRATIVE. |з:| And 'BY ADMINISTRATIVE } I ,MEAN |з:| the ~* children are >TESTED ] in Vorder to 'make a DEvCISION ] aVbout the 'kind of EDU>CATION } that "* they should .HAVE | and .GENERALLY |эт| the assessments are 'DONE | in .ORDER to DE,CIDE 242 "* whether children ,ARE ^ as the XTERM now ,IS ^ ^suitable for edu'cation in x SCHOOL. || (D. Crystal and D. Davy. "Investigating English Style") In the case of reading aloud scientific prose the most widely used pre-nuclear pattern is also (Low Pre-Head + ) Stepping Head. Sometimes the broken Stepping Head is found, if an accidental rise occurs on some item of importance. The Stepping Head may be replaced by the so-called heterogeneous head, i. e. a combination of two or several heads. The most frequently used types of the Heterogeneous Head here are as follows: (a) the Stepping Head combined with the Falling Head; (b) the broken Stepping Head combined with the Falling Head; (c) the Stepping Head combined with the Sliding Head; (d) the broken Stepping Head combined with the Sliding Head. Occasionally the Scandent Head is employed which is an efficient means of making a sentence or an intonation group more emphatic. In this connection it is important to note the use of a succession of falls (both low and high) within any kind of head described above. Final intonation groups are pronounced predominantly with the low or the high falling tone. Non-final intonation groups exhibit more possibilities of variations. In addition to the simple tunes found in final intonation groups the following compound tunes are used: the Fall-Rise and the Rise-Fall. But the falling nuclear tone ranks first, the Low Rise or the Mid-Level being much less common. It should be borne in mind that the falling-nuclear tone in non-final groups in most cases does not reach the lowest possible pitch level. Compound tunes make the oral representation of a written scientific text more expressive by bringing out the most important items in an utterance. Moreover, they secure greater intone-tional cohesion between different parts of a text. Thus the following intonation patterns may be added to tin* ones listed above: (Low Pre-Head +) (Stepping Head) + Rise-Fall (+ Tail) (Low Pre-Head + ) (Heterogeneous Head) + Low Fall ( + Tail) (Low Pre-Head +) (Heterogeneous Head +) High Fall (+ Tail) (Low Pre-Head +) (Heterogeneous Head +) Fall-Rise ( + T.11I) (Low Pre-Head +) (Sliding Head or High Falls +) High I .hi (+ Tail) (Low Pre-Head +) (Sliding Head or High Falls +) High Fall + Rise(+ Tail) (Low Pre-Head +) (Scandent Head +) Low Fall (+ Tail) (Low Pre-Head + ) (Scandent Head +) High Fall (+ Tail) The temporal component of intonation displays the following regularities. The speed of utterance fluctuates from normal to accelerated, but it is never too fast. The accelerated speed of utterance is accounted for by the greater length of words and the greater number of stressed syllables within an intonation group. It can be also explicable in terms of the number of communicative centres (the principal points of information in a sentence). The matter is that a communicative centre is brought out by slowing down the speed of utterance. Since communicative centres are fewer in number as compared with other less important words, which are pronounced at greater speed than usual, the general speed of utterance is perceived as accelerated. Reading scientific prose is characterised by contrastive rhythmic patterns (arhythmic utterance). This is predetermined by the correlation of rhythm and speed of utterance. It is generally assumed that slow speed entails regular rhythm while in accelerated speech rhythm is less regular. Pauses are predominantly short, their placement and the ensuing internal boundaries are always semantically or syntactically predictable. Hesitation pauses are to be avoided. The following extract instances the use of intonation in reading scientific prose: The "* various v MEANINGS | may be ""* classified under ttwo 'general x HEADS | — the - optative SUB>JUNCTIVE ] and the POTENTIAL subjunctive. || The ^OPTATIVE subjunctive I Vrepre'sents 'something as DEVSIRED, £ DEXMANDED, ] or REQUIRED ] (by a _> person or by CIRCUMSTANCES). || The POTENTIAL subjunctive } Vmarks 'something as a fmere con'ception of the XMIND, ^ but at the ~* same VTIME ^ Vrepre'sents it as Tsomething that may vPROBABLY ] or xPOSSIB,LY ? *BE } or BExCOME a reality } or on the *OTHER ,hand £ as >SOMETHING ] that is ""contrary to XFACT. || (G. O. Curme. "A Grammar of the English Language") DECLAMATORY STYLE The term 'declamatory' serves for many kinds of linguistic activity. We shall not attempt to compile an exhaustive list of all the imaginable types with their subsequent description, but rather discuss two varieties of oral representation of written literary texts, namely: reading aloud a piece of descriptive prose (the author's speech) and the author's reproduction of actual conversation (the speech of the characters). The intonation of reading descriptive prose has many features in common with that of reading scientific prose. In both styles the same set of intonational means is made use of, but their frequency of occurrence is different here. In the pre-nuclear part the Low Pre-Head may be. combined with the Stepping Head, the broken Stepping Head, the heterogeneous head or a descending sequence of syllables interrupted by several falls. However, the frequency of occurrence of the heterogeneous head is greater in reading scientific texts, whereas the other three prevail in reading descriptive texts. It is interesting to note that the Scandent Head is not found in reading descriptive prose, it is confined to scientific style. The nuclear tone in final intonation groups is generally the Low Fall or, less frequently, the High Fall. This is due to the fact that both in scientific and descriptive prose the prevailing sentence type is declarative, necessitating the use of the falling tone. The principal nuclear tones in non-final intonation groups are the Low Fall, the High Fall and the Fall-Rise. The simple tunes are more frequent in descriptive texts while the compound tunes are more typical of scientific texts. The Low Rise, the Rise-Fall and the Mid-Level are rarely used as means of intra-phrasal coordination when reading a piece of descriptive prose; the Low Fall, especially the one which does not reach the lowest possible pitch-level, is preferable here. The speed of utterance in reading descriptive prose is relatively slow and as a result there are no marked variations in !hythm. Pauses may be different in length but, as distinct from reading scientific prose, long pauses are more common. Internal boundaries are related to semantic or syntactic categories. The following oral texts may serve as examples of reading descriptive prose: "The Vdoor of the 'dining-room was .OPEN, the Vgas turned ,LOW; | a VSPIRIT-urn 'hissed on a JEA-tray, } and vCLOSE to, it £ a Vcynical-'looking VCAT ] had ~* fallen АчSLEEP on the ,DINING-table. || VOld 'Jolyon "shoo'd' her vOFF at once." 11 (J. Galsworthy. "The Forsyte Saga") When reading aloud a dialogic text, representing the speech of the characters in drama, novel or story, it should be borne in mind that it is different in the matter of intonation from a descriptive text, representing the author's speech (monologue). The intonation adequate for reading dialogic texts is remindful of actual conversation, but there is no one-for-one correlation between them. It is not a pure and simple reproduction of the intonation that might be heard in the natural speech of living people (spontaneous dialogues). Before being used in reading dialogic texts the intonation of actual conversation is subjected to some kind of reshaping, that is to say, the intonation representing the speech of the characters is always stylized. The styli-zation of colloquial intonation implies that only the most striking elements of what might be heard in actual conversation are made use of. For example, the 'Irish accent' which an actor might adopt on stage is usually a stylization, as it would not be a minutely accurate rendering of any one Irish accent, but would simply select a sufficient number of phonetic features to give the impression of Irish speech. The intonation of the natural conversational speech will be described under the heading of 'Familiar (Conversational) Style*. We shall confine ourselves here to some hints on the use of intonation in reading dialogic texts. As far as the pre-nuclear pattern is concerned, it should be noted that the Low or High Pre-Head may be combined with any variety of descending, ascending or level heads. In the terminal tone both simple and compound tunes are widely used. Special mention should be made of the falling-rising tone which has a greater frequency of occurrence in reading dialogic texts than in actual conversation. The pitch-level in most utterances is generally high and the range is wide, unless the conversational situation and the speaker's purpose necessitate the reverse. The overall speed of utterance in reading is normal or reduced as compared with natural speech, and as a result the rhythm is more even and regular. Pauses are exclusively either connecting or disjunctive, thereby internal boundaries placement is always semantically or syntactically predictable. Hesitation pauses do not occur, unless they are deliberately used for stylization purposes. To select an intonation pattern for a particular utterance one has to take into account the author's suggestion as to how the text should be read (eg the playwright's remarks, and stage directions in drama). Moreover, one has to consider the character's social and educational background, the kind of relationship existing between him and other characters as well as the extra-linguistic context at large. This is especially important for novels and stories where the author's directions are generally few and far between. Here is an example of reading aloud a dialogic literary text: ""* Let's have some ХТЕА,И said .Emma. || •LOOK. ] VThis has to be 'taken ^SERIOUSLY," said .Louis. | "I Vdon't think 'people know *HOW to .take things SERIOUSLY .any .more. | The world is a Vgreat 'big xJOKE; j they _ want a ^LAUGH, } a "* bit of AXMUSEMENT, } and *♦ not to ^WORRY about .anything. | But *YOU .aren't .like ,h&l.n || "- How do you AKNOW?" asked .Emma. || "I *DO know. | And •* nor am 4. | I can * OFFER you .something. | I'm 'OLD enough £ and RES'PONSIBLE enough } to 'MARRY; | ~* I'm not an ^ORDINARY undergraduate, j 4PLAYING at affection." || ^PLEASE^ONT/'said .Emma. || "I ■*don't think you >REALISE my... } *WELL } my *FEEL-INGS a.bout .this. | ,EMMA..W || •NO," said ,Emma. | П Don't say 'any tMORE." "But I'm "*sure we could >MAKE each .other ] - veryx HAPPY," said .Louis des.pairingly. || (M. Bradbury. "Eating People is Wrong") PUBLICISTIC STYLE J The term 'publicistic style' is a very broad label, which covers a variety of types, distinguishable on the basis of the speaker's occupation, situation and purpose. We describe one of the uses which might be subsumed under this heading, namely, the type of public speaking dealing with political and social problems (eg parliamentary debates, speeches at rallies, congresses, meeting and election campaigns). Any kind of public oration imposes some very important constraints on the speaker. Normally, it is the written variety of English that is being used (a speech may be written out in full and rehearsed). The success of a political speech-maker is largely dependent on his ability to manipulate intonation and, voice quality. In accordance with his primary desire to convince the listeners of the merits of his case he has to ensure a well- defined progression of ideas combined with persuasive and emotional appeal. ■ The intonation adequate for political speeches is character-■ ised by the following regularities. In the pre-nuclear part theB main patterns are: I (Low Pre-Head +) Stepping Head; ■ (Low Pre-Head +) Falling Head. ■ The heads are often broken due to extensive use of acciden-Щ tal rises to make an utterance more emphatic. The High Level ■ Head is less frequent and the Low-Level Head here is indicative ■ of tonal subordination. By tonal subordination we refer to cases ■ when the pitch-level of an intonation group is dependent on its V neighbours, semantically and communicatively more important 1 intonation groups being pronounced on a higher pitch-level. ■ The nuclear tone of final intonation groups is generally the Low Fall; the High Fall is much less common. The direction of the nuclear syllable pitch-movement in non-final intonation I group is more varied. Both simple and compound tunes are! found there, namely, the Low Fall, the Low Rise, the Mid-Level I and the Fall-Rise. The High Fall and the High Rise are very rare-e ly used for purposes of intra-phrasal coordination. It is interest*» 248 I ing to note that the Low Rise and the Mid-Level are typical of more formal discourse, whereas the Fall-Rise is typical of less formal and more fluent discourse, especially if the falling and the rising parts of the tune are separated by some stressed or unstressed syllables. Here is a list of basic intonation patterns which may be found in publicists style: (LowPre-Head + ) (Falling Head +) High Fall ( + Tail) (Low Pre-Head +) (Falling Head +) Low Rise (+ Tail) (LowPre-Head ) (Falling Head + ) Fall-Rise (+ Tail) (Low Pre-Head +) (Stepping Head +) Low Fall (+ Tail) (Low Pre-Head +) (Stepping Head +) Low Rise (+ Tail) (Low Pre-Head +) (Stepping Head +) High Fall (+ Tail) (Low Pre-Head +) (High or Medium Level Head +) Low Fall ( + Tail) (Low Pre-Head +) (High or Medium Level Head + ) Low Rise ( + Tail) (Low Pre-Head+ ) (High or Medium Level Head +) High Fall (+Tail) (Low Pre-Head +) (High or Medium Level Head +) High Fall + Rise ( +Tail) (Low Pre-Head +) (High or Medium Level Head + ) Mid-Level ( + Tail) The speed of utterance is related to the degree of formality, the convention being that formal speech is usually slow, less formal situations entail acceleration of speed. Variations in rhythm are few (rhythmic utterance). Pausation and the ensuing internal boundaries are explicable in semantic and syntactic terms. Intonation groups tend to be short and as a result pauses are numerous, ranging from brief to very long. Hesitation pauses are avoided, still silent hesitation pauses occasionally do occur. It is ^.teresting to note that some of the best ripostes during a political speech come at a point when the speaker is trying to gain maximum effect through a rhetorical silence. Moreover, an utterance is often emphasized by means of increased sentence-stress and the glottal stop. We illustrate the use of publicistic style by the following extract from a political speech: You Vcan't have in'formed OPINION ] ■* on this XVITAL XMATTER ] with"*out being kept XVERY much up to XDATE | with the ,LATEST .FACTS of DEFENCE. | Now - what XIS /WRONG | with a coa- Ution .GOVERNMENT? | Of ■* course you XNEED a coalition .GOVERNMENT } in "» time of /CRISIS, | but the "* dreadful xPART of a coa,Ution .government, you /KNOW, £ is that to ** keep it A,LIVE j you Vhave to go in for 'one /COMPROMISE £ after ANOTHER. | You Vhave to see 'people t sitting /ROUND £ the /CABINET room j with ~* different ,VIEWS ^ and unVless there can be a 'shifting of 0,PINION I toVwards 'some xFORM of /COMPROMISE] beVtween those 'different 'VIEWS ^ the coaVUtion 'government /FALLS j and Vwe be'come a'nother .FRANCE. | Now "* I xDO BE,LIEVE } that the ^ whole QUESTION of DEFENCE. | the Vwhole 'question of a 'stand upon 'summit .TALKS, j the Vwhole re'action as to whether 'Britain ought to 'take axLEAD I in this "* question of the .H-bomb j as to "* whether we > OUGHT to | "* have that xMORAL /LEADERSHIP ] and Vgive that 'moral E/XAMPLE } Vby 'saying xNOT, ] we Vuni'laterally DISXARM. | "* That I have /NEVER ,said | and Vthat many 'members of my town 'PARTY, ] xMOST .members of my .own 'PARTY ] have ■* never BELIEVED in | -What we xDO say at this /MOMENT as the .opposition ] is .THIS: | for A HEAVEN'S .sake | - give a .LEAD | and ,TRY and ,BREAK ,DOWN } this Vdreadful sui'cidal ,WALL £ where Vno one will "yield an .INCH, | Vsay that you 'do 'not in 'fact INTEND over the Vnext 'six .MONTHS, } if you 'LIKE ] to - have any more JESTS, | - say .SOMETHING ] that can - start the DISARMAMENT talks .GOING. } Now - if you .FIRMLY believe in /THAT ] - don't go in for a COALITION ] BEXCAUSE as I've 'SAID ] Vthat's a Very tvital contri'bution I BE'LIEVE j toVwards the "peace of the 'WORLD } and toVwards our own de'fence 4POLICY. 11 (D. Crystal and D. Davy. "Investigating English Style")
I
FAMILIAR (CONVERSATIONAL) STYLE
Here we are concerned with dominant features of relatively informal conversation between educated people (spontaneous dialogic texts).* We have been guided by the belief that for a pedagogically orientated book spontaneous informal conversation provides the best example of the intonational style in question, since this is the kind of English everyone makes use of every day. Thereby, it is the most useful and least artificial kind of English to teach foreign students as a means of everyday communication.
Generally speaking, familiar (conversational) style, unlike other styles, will allow the occurrence of the entire range of intonation patterns existing in English. This is due to the fact that there seem to be no social restrictions on the range of emotions and attitudes which might be displayed in a conversational situation. However, it is to be noted that within any given stretch of utterance very little occurs.
Relatively unexcited conversational situations are characterised by low pre-heads, falling or stepping heads and simple low falling or rising tones. Monosyllabic response utterances display standardised, narrowed pitch patterns. Degrees of increasing intensity of excitement correlate with increased pitch height. As a result widened pitch patterns are typical of more excited situation. In this connection one should note the high proportion of intonation patterns with the high falling nuclear tone. The flow of conversation much depends on these patterns, as the High Fall implies, among other things, the effect of personal participation or involvement in the situation. It is extremely important for the participants in conversation to show an active interest in what is going on. Besides, mention should be made of the high frequency of compound tunes and heterogeneous heads. There is also the occasional completely unexpected placement of nuclear tone.
In spontaneous informal conversation there is marked tendency for intonation to form a basic set of recurrent patterns.
Conversation dialogues are sometimes opposed to discussion dialogues. But it is unlikely that there is a clear boundary between conversation and discussion. Some kind of distinction can be drawn in terms of the degree of seriousness of the subject-matter and the formality of the occasion.
The precise nature of these patterns varies to a certain extent depending on such situational factors as the relationship of the speakers to each other, the chosen subject-matter, the fluency of an individual, his emotional state and so on. The essential patterns are exemplified in the following micro-dialogues.
GROUP I. LOW (MEDIUM) FALL
Pattern One: (Low Pre-Nucleus +) Low Fall (+Tail)
Statement
Attitude:final, categoric, detached, cool, dispassionate, reserved, dull, eg:
Stimulus: Can you see him now?
Response: You xKNOW I .can't.
Special Question
Attitude:detached, flat, unsympathetic, even hostile, eg: Stimulus: Alec won't help. Response: And XWHY .won't he?
General Question
Attitude:uninterested, hostile, eg: Stimulus: I think you'll like it. Response: XWILL I?
Imperative
Attitude:unemotional, calm, controlled, cold, eg: Stimulus: It's my pen. Response: Well XTAKE it, then.
Exclamation Attitude:calm, unsurprised, reserved, self-possessed, eg: Stimulus: He refuses to go there. Response: The XCHEEK of it!
Pattern Two: (Low Pre-Head+) Falling Head+Low Fall (+ Tail)
Statement
Attitude:final, categoric, complete, definite, dispassionate, eg: Stimulus: When can you come? Response: I Vthink I shall be 'free on VTUESDAY.
Special Question
Attitude:categoric, serious, dispassionate, eg: Stimulus: I've missed the last train. Response: VHow are you 'going to 'get xHOME?
General Question
Attitude:insistent, dispassionate, eg:
Stimulus: He explained the new method to me. Response: But Vdo you "really UNDERSTAND it?
Imperative
Attitude:firm, serious, dispassionate, eg: Stimulus: How much practice shall I do? Response: VDo as 'much as v POSSIBLE.
Exclamation
Attitude:unemotional, eg:
Stimulus: They asked us to tea.
Response: VHow 'perfectly ^CHARMING of them!
Pattern Three: (Low Pre-Head +) High (Medium) Level Head + Low Fall (+TaiI)
Statement
Attitude:categoric, judicial, considered, eg:
Stimulus: Why did they run away?
Response: They just "* couldn't face up the financial XDIFFI-CULTIES.
Special Question
Attitude:searching, serious, intense, urgent, eg: Stimulus: Sorry I wasn't able to come. Response: But "* why didn't you say you were XBUSY?
General Question
"i Attitude:serious, urgent, eg:
Stimulus: It was quite an experience.
Response: But can you "* really say you EN xJOYED the performance?
Imperative
Attitude:very serious and strong, eg: Stimulus: Do you think he's serious? Response: Take the ~* whole thing with a pinch of XSALT.
i |
Exclamation
Attitude:very strong, eg:
Stimulus: He's won the first prize.
Response: What an as"* founding bit of VLUCK!
i |
Pattern Four (Low Pre-Head +) Low-Level Head + Low Fall (+ Tail)
Statement
Attitude:cool, calm, phlegmatic, reserved, grim, surly, eg: Stimulus: What would you like for lunch? Response: I _♦ can't make 'up my 'mind XWHAT to have.
Special Question
Attitude:detached, reserved, flat unsympathetic, hostile, eg: Stimulus: I've lost my invitation. Response: _, How did you 'manage to 'do ДНАТ?
General Question
Attitude:detached, phlegmatic, reserved, eg: Stimulus: I can't find my key anywhere. Response: Have you _»looked in the xDINING-,room?
Imperative
Attitude:unemotional, calm, controlled, cold, eg: Stimulus: Peter was very rude to me. Response: _>Don't take 'any ^NOTICE of him.
Exclamation
Attitude:calm, unsurprised, reserved, self-possessed, eg: Stimulus: I'll give it to you next month. Response: A _ lot of 'use it'll 'be VTHEN!
Pattern Five: (Low Pre-Head+) Stepping Head + Low Fall (+Tail)
Statement
Attitude:categoric, considered, judicial, weighty, edifying, often impatient, eg:
Stimulus: What would you do?
Response: I'm afraid I've nothing 'more to SUGGEST.
Special Question
Attitude:searching, serious, intense, responsible, weighty, impatient, irritable, eg:
Stimulus: Give me your pen please.
Response: VWhy don't you 'buy 'one of your xOWN?
General Question
Attitude:very insistent and ponderous, eg:
Stimulus: Let's go now.
Response: VDon't you 'think it would be 'better to VWAIT a ,bit?
Imperative
Attitude:firm, serious, considered, weighty, pressing, edifying, often impatient, eg:
Stimulus: Here's cheque from them.
Response: VSend it 'back to those 'awful 'people IMMEDIATELY.
Exclamation
Attitude:very weighty and emphatic, eg:
Stimulus: He's just made another appointment.
Response: What a Vpity we 'didn't 'ring him XYESTERDAY!
Pattern Six: (Low Pre-Head +) Sliding Head + Low Fall (+ Tail)
Statement
Attitude:concern, personal involvement, eg: Stimulus: You never lose your temper, do you? Response: I'm Vnot in the Vhabit of vDOING ,so.
Special Question
Attitude:interest, personal participation, eg: Stimulus: The meeting is very important. Response: VWhen is the Vmeeting ^due to take xPLACE?
Imperative
Attitude:personal concern, eg: Stimulus: You've a lecture at five. Response: Well, Vdon't forget to RE.MIND a.bout it.
Pattern Seven: (Low Pre-Head +) Scandent Head + Low Fall (+Tail)
Attitude:self-satisfied, playful, joyful, delighted, eg:
Stimulus: What do you think of it?
Response: VThis is 'simply xWONDERFUL.
Stimulus: He agreed to the scheme.
Response: Well, Vhow did you ex'pect him to REVACT?
Exclamation
Stimulus: This is where I live.
Response: I What a 'pretty 'little xHOUSE!
Pattern Eight: High Pre-Nucleus + Low Fall (+ Tail)
Statement
Attitude:very emotional and emphatic, eg: Stimulus: Do you think he can do it? Response: ~ I'm XSURE he can.
Special Question
Attitude:very emotional, emphatic, serious, eg: Stimulus: They won't go there. Response: "Why xNOT for .heaven's .sake?
General Question
Attitude:insistent, serious, doubtful, eg: Stimulus: I've forgotten to tell her. Response: "Does it x MATTER ,all that .much?
Imperative
Attitude:insistent, serious, eg: Stimulus: Hurry up, please. Response: "Don't VRUSH me.
Exclamation
Attitude:very emotional and emphatic, eg: Stimulus: Here's a letter from him. Response: "Good ^GRACIOUS!
|
GROUP II. HIGH FALL
Pattern One: (Low Pre-Nucleus +) High Fall (+ Tail)
Statement
Attitude:personal concern or involvement, interested, eg: Stimulus: You ought to write him a letter. Response: IINXTEND to.
Special Question
Attitude:interested, business-like, eg:
Stimulus: I'm sure I brought my umbrella. Response: Where 4S it, then?
General Question
Attitude:mildly surprised acceptance of the listener's premises, eg:
Stimulus: He's seventy.
Response: lIS he?
Imperative
Attitude:warm, often with a note of critical surprise, eg: Stimulus: I'm very sorry. Response: FORxGET it.
Exclamation
Attitude:rather emotional and emphatic, eg: Stimulus: He says it's your fault. Response: WhatxNONSENSE!
Quot;4
Pattern Three: (Low High Pre-Head +) High (Medium) Level
Head + Rise-Fall (+ Tail)
or
Pattern Four: (Low/Pre-Head +) Stepping Head + Rise-Fall
(+Tail)
I
Statement
Attitude:impressed, complacent, challenging, censorious, disclaiming responsibility, eg:
Sfi'muius: I'm sure he'll agree.
Response: ~* That's what л YOU think.
Special Question Attitude:challenging, antagonistic, disclaiming responsibility, eg:
Stimulus: I think, it's worse than useless.
Response: VWho 'asked for ''YOUR advice?
General Question
Attitude:impressed, challenging, antagonistic, eg: Stimulus: You are not going to help him, are you? Response: Is there Vany "reason 'why I лSHOULD?
Imperative tj
Attitude:refusing to be embroiled, sometimes hostile, eg: Stimulus: I'm going to risk it anyway. Response: VDon't 'say I 'didn't "WARN you, then.
Exclamation
Attitude:greatly impressed by something not entirely expected; sometimes a hint of accusation, eg:
Stimulus: She's just had triplets.
Response:"» Good л HEAVENS!
GROUP IV. LOW RISE
Pattern One: (Low Рте-Nucleus +) Low Rise (+ Tail)
Statement
Attitude:encouraging further conversation, guarded, eg: Stimulus: Can he play chess? Response: He, CAN.
Special Question
Attitude:wondering, mildly puzzled, eg: Stimulus: He lives in that house. Response: In /WHICH house?
General Question
Attitude:somewhat sceptical, eg: Stimulus: It's going to rain. Response: Do you ,THINK so?
Imperative Attitude:encouraging further conversation; appealing to the listener to change his mind, eg:
Stimulus: I've a confession to make.
Response: Go ,ON.
Exclamation
Attitude:calm, casual acknowledgement, eg: Stimulus: Shall we meet at five? Response: All , RIGHT!
Pattern Two: (Low Pre-Head +) Falling Head + Low Rise (+ Tail)
Statement
Attitude:non-final, non-categoric, lacking definiteness and completeness, eg:
Stimulus: When will they be back, do you think?
Response: They'll be Vback by 'nine O', CLOCK.
Special Question
Attitude:non-categoric, interested, mildly puzzled, eg: Stimulus: I'll never be ready by Sunday. Response: VWhy don't you 'let ,ME ,give you a .hand?
General Question
Attitude:conveying polite interest, eg:
Stimulus: He has just published a new book on physics.
Response: Can you Vtell me the e'xact 'title of this ,BOOK?
Imperative
Attitude:non-final, non-categoric, friendly, eg: Stimulus: What a delicious cake! Response: VLet me 'give you A,NOTHER one.
Exclamation
Attitude:light, friendly, eg:
Stimulus: He'll be home at five.
Response: VThank you for 'letting me ,KNOW.
Pattern Three: (Low Pre-Head +) High (Medium) Level Head + Low Rise (+ Tail)
Statement
Attitude:soothing, reassuring, eg:
Stimulus: I am sorry about it.
Response: It ~* doesn't /MATTER. | We "'all make mistakes .SOMETIME.
Special Question
Attitude:establishing a bond with the listener, showing that it is a friendly enquiry and not an attempt to pry, eg:
Stimulus: Alfred is on the phone.
Response: ~*Who does he want to /SPEAK to?
General Question
Attitude:interested, eg: 1
Stimulus: My sister lives in Scotland. -«
Response: Does she ~*ever come to /ENGLAND?
Imperative
Attitude:non-purposeful, non-insistent, encouraging, eg: Stimulus: How shall I do it? Response: "*Let me ,SHOW you.
Exclamation
Attitude:airy, casual, eg:
Stimulus: I'll see you tomorrow. Response: ~* Right you /ARE!
Pattern Four: (Low Pre-Head +) Low Level Head + Low Rise (+Tail)
Statement
Attitude:encouraging further conversation, guarded, reserving judgement, appealing to the listener to change his mind, reprovingly critical, resentful, deprecatory, eg:
Stimulus: You simply must go.
Response: I _>don't 'see why I /SHOULD.
Special Question
Attitude: wondering, mildly puzzled; very calm but disapproving and resentful, even menacing, eg:
Stimulus: Get out of here.
Response: Just _»who do you 'think you are /TALKING to?
General Question Attitude:disapproving, sceptical, eg: Stimulus: But what will Peter say? Response: Do you _> think I 'care what /HE says?
Imperative
Attitude:reprovingly critical, deprecatory, resentful, calmly warning, exhortative, eg:
Stimulus: How much can he give you? (
Response: Mind your 'own /BUSINESS.
Exclamation Attitude:reserving judgement; calm, casual acknowledgement, eg:
Stimulus: I pulled it off.
Response: ^Good for ,YOU!.
Pattern Five: (Low Pre-Head +) Stepping Head + Low Rise (+Tail)
Statement
Attitude:soothing, reassuring, hint of great self-confidence and self-reliance, eg:
Stimulus: When will you give it back?
Response: I'll re Vturn it without 'fail at the "week-,END.
Special Question
Attitude:sympathetically interested; puzzled; disapproving, eg: Stimulus: I used to live here. Response: And V where do you 'live /NOW?
General Question
Attitude:genuinely interested, eg: Stimulus: It was her birthday party. Response: VDid you 'bring her a, PRESENT?
Imperative
Attitude:soothing, encouraging, calmly patronising, eg: Stimulus: I can't carry all that. Response: Well then, V carry as 'much as you /CAN.
Exclamation
Attitude:airy, encouraging, bright, friendly, eg: Stimulus: In going to the party. Response: VHave a 'good /TIME!
J
INTONATIONAL STYLES AND MODIFICATION OF SOUNDS IN CONNECTED SPEECH ________
Although intonation is superimposed on phonemes, there is no one-for-one correlation between intonational styles and modification of sounds in connected speech. The difficulties correlating the occurrence of stylistic variants of phonemes with intonation has hindered up to the present a satisfactory description of phonetic styles as such.
With reference to the degree of carefulness with which words are pronounced, distinction can be made between elaborated (explicit) and restricted (elliptical) codes in English." The temporal component of intonation is primarily responsible for the differences. The elaborated code is characterized by a tendency to avoid vowel reduction, loss of consonants and non-obligatory assimilations, that is to say, strong forms of words are preferred. However in certain types of linguistic activity the less extreme of the available weak forms and some of the commoner elisions may be found, eg reading aloud dialogic literary texts. In restricted code no strong forms are used where weak forms are possible and some extreme weak forms occur, elisions and assimilations abound.
Informational, scientific, declamatory and publicistic styles are invariably associated with the elaborated code, while familiar style is related to the restricted code. However within the scope of declamatory style sometimes both codes may be found, as in the case of stage speech.
It is to be remembered that, although the elaborated code is to be mastered first by foreign students, the restricted code is not to be neglected. The over-precise manner of articulation in a conversational situation tends to produce the wrong effect as it may be suggestive of irritation or pedantry.
To give some idea of the difference in the degree of carefulness with which words are pronounced here are two examples:
The term 'code' is used here in relation to the manner of articulation of
Sounds.
A
Informational Style (elaborated code)
The executive of the post-office workers union has confirmed April the sixteenth as the day on which they will hold their one day strike.
Oi ig"*zekjutiv dv дэ vp3ust ofis W3:kaz ,ju:njan } haes kan M3:md 'cipnl fla 'siks-xti:ne I aez дэ vdei on 'witf dei wil 'h3uld бзэ 'шап dci ,straik.
Familiar Style (restrictedcode)
Mr. Jimson won't be back for some time. But he asked me to tell you that you haven't got a chance. He isn't going to talk to you about art. |
vmista 'cfeimsn Чузитр bi 'bask fa 'sAm xtaim. II bat i "*as mi ta vtcl ja } datfa
"^hajvnk got a xtfons. II hi ist) ,g3uirj ta ,to:k t ja baut .at.
Patterns of Exercises
This part is to exemplify the system of exercises the authors have in mind. There is no implication that the exercises are elaborated exhaustively. They are intended to stand as patterns of exercises to be used in class. They may be further extended by the teacher and the student according to the specific purpose.
SOUNDS OF SPEECH
CONSONANTS ....................
Stops
1.Listen how the speaKer on the tape pronounces stops in word
initial position. Imitate the reading. Mind that a complete ob
struction should be released with a strong explosion. Make
[p, t, k] aspirated.
[p] (bl [tj Id] [k] [gj
pen Ben ten dean came give pack back tart dot court goal
2. Practise reading the words above at normal conversational speed. Be sure to pronounce stops in word initial position correctly. Try to pronounce each word to the teacher's satisfaction.
3. Listen to your fellow-student reading the sets of words. Tell him what his errors in the pronunciation of stops are. Are the mistakes phonetic or phonological?
4. Now read the word-contrasts. Concentrate on the difference between an initial voiceless stop and its voiced counterpart.
[p-bl [t-dl [k-g]
pig — big tea — D curl — girl
port — bought ton — done card — guard
5. Make clear distinction between the Russian-English counter
parts in the following sets of words. Tell the difference be
tween the opposed stops.
пик — peak; бить — beat; такт — tact; дата — date порт — port; боб — Bob; табло — table; диск — disk кипа — keeper; грипп — grippe колония — colony; галантный — gallant
6. Listen how the speaker on the tape pronounces stops in the
word medial position. Imitate the reading. Mind that a com
plete obstruction should be released with an explosion. Ob
serve the positional length of the vowels preceding the voice
less/voiced consonants.
[Pi [bj [t] Id] [k] [g]
happy shabby metal faded sacking degree capable cable writer rider bicker bigger
7. Practise reading the words above at normal conversational speed. Be sure to pronounce stops in word medial position correctly. Try to pronounce each word to the teacher's satisfaction.
8. Listen to your fellow-student reading the sets of words. Tell him what his errors in the pronunciation of stops are. Are they phonetic or phonological?
9. Now read the words. Concentrate on the difference between a medial voiceless stop and its voiced counterpart.
[p —Ы [t-d] [k-g]
caper — caber hearten — harden bicker — bigger
poppy — bobby putting — pudding locking — logging .
10. Listen how the speaker on the tape pronounces stops in word
final position. Imitate the reading. Mind weak aspiration of
the stops [p, t, k] in their final position. Observe the length
of the vowels preceding the voiceless/voiced stops.
IP) IbJ [t] [d] [k][g]
cup cub bet bed duck dug
cap cab bit bid pick big
11. Practise reading the words above at normal conversational
speed. Be sure to pronounce voiced stops in word final posi
tion partially devoiced. Remember that strong (voiceless)
stops at the end shorten the preceding vowel. Try to pro
nounce each word to the teacher's satisfaction.
2. Listen to your fellow-student reading the sets of words of Ex. 10. Tell him what his errors in the pronunciation of stops are. What advice would you give your fellow-student if he (a) completely devoices the final voiced stops, (b) does not make them partially devoiced? Are such mistakes phonetic or phonological?
3. Now read the word-contrasts. Concentrate on the difference between a final voiceless stop and its voiced counterpart. Be particularly careful to shorten the vowels preceding the strong (voiceless) stops and lengthen them a bit before weak (voiced) ones. Do not forget to pronounce final voiced stops as partially devoiced.
[p-b] [t-d] . [k-g]
rope — robe hat — had lock — log
lap — lab lit — lid Dick — dog
4. Read each of the sentences below twice, using word (a) in the
first reading and word (b) in the second. Then read again
and use either (a) or (b), while your fellow-student tries to
identify in each case the word you have pronounced.
(a. back; b. pack) 1. Now I must...
(a. bear; b. pear) 2. You can't eat a whole ...
(a. mob; b. mop) 3. The leader kept the ... well in hand.
(a. gold; b. cold) 4. Are you getting ...?
(a. cave; b. gave) 5. Under great pressure they... in.
(a. back; b. bag) 6. Put your coat on your ...
(a. bed; b. bet) 7. When he moved he lost his ...
(a. let; b. led) 8. A traitor ... the enemy in.
>. Reading Matter. Listen how the speaker on the tape reads the phrases below. Practise reading them at normal conversational speed.
Pretty Polly Perkins has a pair of pretty plaits. Ping-pong is a эри1аг sport and is played in many places. Barbara is a beautiful onde with bright blue eyes.
The trip by train took a tiresome twenty-two hours. Too many enagers tend to waste their time watching television. Dennie's mghter Diana doesn't dislike darning.
If we keep quiet we may be lucky and see the cuckoo. Take ire not to make many mistakes when you bake those cakes. If )u go digging in the garden, don't forget to get your old grey oves.
Fricatives
1. Listen how the speaker on the tape pronounces fricatives in
word initial position. Imitate the reading.
[П .M 19] [d] Is] [z] Ш [h]
feet visit thief these soup zoo sheep hat
food verse thank then so zero ship harp
2. Practise reading the words above at normal conversational speed. Be sure to pronounce fricatives in word initial position correctly. Make the friction as strong as possible (except for [h]). Try to pronounce each word to the teacher's satisfaction.
3. Listen to your fellow-student reading the sets of words. Tell him what his errors in the pronunciation of fricatives are. Are they phonetic or phonological?
4. Now read the word-contrasts, concentrate on the difference between an initial voiceless fricative and its voiced counterpart.
[f-v] [9-d] [s-z]
feel — veal thick — this soup — zoo
fan — van thumb — thus soap — zone
5. In view of special importance given to the correction of possi
ble mistakes this exercise is meant to draw the students' at
tention to the differences in the articulation of the initial frica
tives. Practise reading the following word-contrasts. Explain
what changes in the place or the manner of articulation differ
entiate the meaning of words.
[f—0] [v — 0) [v —wj [o — s] [в —sj
Finn — thin vote — though vest — west thick — sick these — sees
fought — thought vain — they verse — worse thing — sing they — say
[6—zj [s —в] [s—Л [в —d]
though — zone sin — thin see — she then — den
these — zeal sick — thick sips — ships there — dare
6. Make a clear distinction between the Russian-English counter
parts in the following sets of words, tell the difference be
tween the opposed fricatives.
[ф, ф'— f) [в, в'— v] {с, с'—s]
фильм — film выл, вил — veal синь — sin, seen
финиш — finish визит — visit сыт — sit, seat
[ш, ш'— J] [х,х'— h]
щи — she худ — hood
шип — ship, sheep xon — hope
7. Listen how the speaker on the tape pronounces fricatives in
the word medial position. Imitate the reading.
[fl [v] [в] [о] [s] ,
suffer cover author brother pieces Ц
defend never nothing mother concert
[zj Ш [31 [h]
easy Asia measure behave _
hesitate cushion usual perhaps I
8. Practise reading the words above at normal conversational speed. Be sure to pronounce fricatives in word medial position correctly, mind that the friction in an intervocalic position is weaker than initially. Try to pronounce each word to I the teacher's satisfaction.
9. Listen to your fellow-student reading the sets of words of Ex. 7. Tell him what his errors in the pronunciation of the word medial fricatives are. Are they phonetic or phonological?
10. Listen how the speaker on the tape pronounces fricatives in
word final position. Imitate the reading. d
[П [v] [9] {d] [sj [z] Ш [3] Ч
leaf halve path with niece is dish rouge calf prove breath bathe pass says cash garage
11. Practise reading the words above at normal conversational speed. Be sure to pronounce final voiced fricatives as partially devoiced. Remember that strong (voiceless) fricatives at the end shorten the preceding vowel. Try to pronounce each word to the teacher's satisfaction. Suppose your fellow-student pronounces final voiced (weak) fricatives as fully voiced. Tell him what he must do to correct the error. Is the mistake phonological? If he completely devoices them what advice would you give him to pronounce the consonants in the proper way? What kind of mistake is it now?
12. Now read the word-contrasts. Concentrate on the fricative pairs in word final position. Be particularly careful to shorten the vowels preceding the strong (voiceless) fricatives and lengthen them a bit before weak (voiced) ones. Go not forget to pronounce voiced final fricatives as partially devoiced. [f-v] [G-oJ [s-z]
leaf — leave mouth (n) — mouth (v) cease — seas
half — halve breath — breathe lice — lies
13. This exercise is meant to draw the students' attention to the
differences in the articulation of the final fricatives. Practise
reading the following word-contrasts. Transcribe them. Ex
plain what changes in the place or the manner of articulation
substitute one consonant for the other.
[9 —s] [0 —z] [s—J]
mouth — mouse clothe — close mess — mesh
worth — worse breathe — breese ass — ash
14. Look at the word combinations below and decide which of
the vowels have to be longer and which shorter. Now say the
phrases with good vowel length and good difference be
tween [f] and [v].
a brief love; a stiff glove; a grave grief, a cliff drive
15. Listen carefully as your teacher pronounces a prolonged [в]
several times [Э — Э — 0]. Imitate the pronunciation of the
consonant, making sure that you thrust the tip of your
tongue between your teeth. Then listen how the speaker on
the tape pronounces the following word combinations and
repeat them in the intervals. Transcribe and intone them.
thick and thin; a thrilling thing; thirty-three: a healthy athlete
16. Read the following word combinations and phrases with [d] at normal conversational speed. Be careful not to pronounce [v, z, d] instead of [d].
father and mother, get them together, smooth feathers; you
said that you'd answer these letters
17. This exercise is meant to concentrate the students' attention on the word-contrasts in phrases. Read the following phrases, be sure to pronounce the fricatives correctly not to mix up the meaning. Now read them very fast being very attentive in view of the word contrasts. Pronounce each sentence as one breath group, without pauses.
[f — в]: Philip fought while Philippa thought. This useful thread is free.
[s — в]: The cook thickens the soup. The soup sickens the cook.
18. Read each of the sentences below twice, using word (a) in the
first reading and word (b) in the second. Then read again and use either (a) or fb), while another member of the group tries to identify in each case the word that you pronounced.
(a. thought; b. taught) I would never ... that.
(a. booth; b. boot) That... is too small.
(a. thinking; b. sinking) Are you ... or just lying there?
19. Look at the word combinations and.phrases with [f — 3].
Practise reading them. Mind that [J] is a very noisy fricative
and [3] is much weaker and shorter.
This shop is a fish shop; six sheep; a tape treasure; the usual decision.
20. Do you remember that [hj is a pure sound of breath? If not,
practise the following phrases with [hj initially.
How horrible; a happy home; the happy hunter; headed for the high hills
21. Practise reading the following with [h] and no [hj initially.
Helen is arty. Ellen is hearty.
Helen eats up the pie. Ellen heats up the pie.
Helen looks after her hair. Ellen looks after her heir.
22. Reading Matter. Listen how the speaker on the tape reads
the phrases below.
[f)'. Fine fellows met at five on the first of February. "Philip", said Ferdinand, "I fear we must fight." Then Philip and Ferdinand fought fairly for fifty-five minutes, after which they fell down in a faint, for the fight had been fearfully furious. When Philip came out of the faint. Ferdinand offered his hand. "Fair's fair", said Philip, "and I think this affair shows neither of us fears to fight".
(v): Every evening Victor and Vivian visit Eve. Victor and Vivian are rivals. Both vow to love Eve forever. But Eve is very vain. Vivienne is vivacious and full of verve. Eventually, Victor gives Eve up and goes over to Vivienne, leaving. Eve to Vivian.
[9|: Arthur Smith, a thick-set, healthy athlete sees three
thieves throw a thong round Thea's throat and threaten to throt
tle her. He throws one thug to earth with a thud that shakes his
teeth. Both the other thieves run off with a filthy oath. Thea
thanks Arthur for thrashing the three thugs. .Л
[d): These are three brothers. This is their other brother. These are their father and mother. Their other brother is teething.
[sj: Sue and Cecily are sisters. Sue is sixteen this summer. Cecily was seventeen last Sunday. Sue is sowing grass seed. She sees Cecily asleep with a glass of cider and nice sixpenny ice by her side. Sue slips across, sips the glass of cider and eats the ice. Cecily gets such a surprise when she wakes.
[z]: Zoe is visiting the Zoo. A lazy zebra called Desmond is dozing at the Zoo. He feels flies buzzing round his eyes, ears and nose. He rouses, opens his eyes, rises and goes to Zoe. Zoe is wearing a rose on her blouse. Zoe gives Desmond the buns.
If): She showed me some machine-made horse shoes. I wish to be shown the latest fashion in short shirts. Mr. Mash sells fish and shell-fish fresh from the ocean. She was still shaking from the shock of being crushed in the rush.
[3]: I can't measure the pleasure I have in viewing this treasure at leisure. The decision was that on that occasion the collision was due to faulty vision.
[h]: Humble hairy Herbert has his hand on his heart because he sees how his brother's Henry horse has hurt his hoof in a hole while hunting. Henry helps him to hobble home; Henry is very humorous.
23. Transcribe and intone the phrases above. Practise reading them yourself at normal conversational speed.
Affricates
1. Listen how the speaker on the tape pronounces affricates in
word initial position. Imitate the reading.
[tfl: cheap [<fc]: Jean
chop jolly
2. Practise reading the words above at normal conversational speed. Be sure to pronounce affricates in word initial position correctly. Make [tf] strong and voiceless and [cfc] much weaker and voiced. Try to pronounce each word to the tqacher's satisfaction.
3. Listen to your fellow-student reading the sets of words of Ex. 1. Tell him what his errors in the pronunciation of the affricates are. Are they phonetic or phonological?
Amp;.
4. Now read the word contrasts, concentrate on the difference
between the initial voiceless affricate and its voited counter
part.
[tf — <fc J: chin — gin cheep — jeep
cheer — jeer chill — gill
5. Listen how the speaker on the tape pronounces affricates in
word medial position. Imitate the reading. Remember that (cfcj
in this position is weak and short, Jtf) is still strong and voice
less.
riches — ridges fetching — edging
catching — cadging batches — badges
6. This exercise is meant to practise the difference between
[tf — djj in word final position. Concentrate on making [tf]
strong and voiceless; (cfcj is partly devoiced. Remember that
[tfl shortens the vowel before it.
etch — edge batch — badge
rich — ridge catch — cadge
7. Make a clear distinction between the Russian [ч'] and the En
glish [tf] in the following sets of words. Tell the difference
between the opposed affricates.
чай — China матч — match
чу — chew чих — chick
8. Read the following word combinations with (tf, dj}. Concen
trate on the correct pronunciation of the affricates.
[tf]:a rich cheese aDutch champion a watch-chain
№]: a huge joke' alarge jug a juicy orange
9. Reading Matter.Listen how the speaker on the tape reads the
phrases below. Practise reading them.
[if]: Charles is a cheerful chicken-farmer. A poacher is watching Charles' chickens, choosing which to snatch. He chuckles at the chance of achoice-chicken to chew for his lunch. But the chuckle reaches Charles who chases the poacher and catches him. For lunch. Charles chose a cheap chop and some chips, with cheese and cherries afterwards. They cheered the cheerful chap who chose to venture to match his skill with the champion's.
[dj]: The aged judge urges the jury to be just but generous. In June and July we usually enjoy a few jaunts to that region. He injured his thumb on the jagged edge of a broken jar.
Sonorants
Nasal Sonorants
1. Listen how the speaker on the tape pronounces the sonorant
[m] in word initial, medial and final positions. Imitate the
reading.
man, salmon, seem made, family, warm
2. Practise reading the families of words above at normal conversational speed. Be sure to observe the positional length of [m]. Try to pronounce each word to the teacher's satisfaction.
3. Listen to your fellow-student reading the sets of words of Ex. 1. Tell him what his errors in the pronunciation of [m]are. Are they phonetic or phonological?
4. Read the following words. Concentrate on the positional length of the sonorant [m]. Be sure to make [m] shorter before a voiceless consonant.
simple, symbol, rampling, rambling, limp, limber
5. Make a clear distinction between the Russian-English counter-
parts in the following sets of words. Tell the difference between the opposed sonorants [ м, м" — m].
мил — meal, mill машина — machine
матч — match минута — minute
6. Read the following word combinations with [m] in different
positions. Concentrate on the correct pronunciation of the so
norant.
many mushrooms; much marmalade; te .make machines; a magic mask
7. Reading Matter.Listen how the speaker on the tape reads the
phrases below.
The murmur of the bees in the elms brings back memories of many memorable summers. Some men may make many mistakes in mathematics. Since time immemorial the moon has moved men to make poems.
8. Transcribe and intone them. Practise reading them yourself at
normal conversational speed.
9. Listen how the speaker on the tape pronounces the sonorant
[nj in word initial, medial and final positions. Keep the tip of
the tongue on the teeth ridge for [nj. Imitate the reading.
nut, banana, inn not, dinner, noon
10. Practise reading the words above at normal conversational speed. Mind the positional length of [n). Try to pronounce each word to the teacher's satisfaction.
11. Listen to your fellow-student reading the sets of words of Ex. 9. Tell him what his errors in the pronunciation of [n] are. Are they phonetic or phonological?
12. Read the following words. Be sure to observe the positional length of [n]. Remember that [n] is shorter before voiceless consonants.
ant — and; lent — lend bent — bend; dense — dens
13. Make a clear distinction between the Russian-English coun
terparts in the following sets of words. Tell the difference
between the opposed [н, н' — n].
нить — neat навигация — navigation
нет — net нектар — nectar
14. Read the following word combinations with |n] in different
positions. Concentrate on the correct pronunciation of the
sonorant.
knitting needles; a nice necklace; neat napkins; a tin can; a fine line
15. Reading Matter.Listen how the speaker on the tape reads
the phrases below. Practise reading them at normal speed.
That fine bunch of bananas will make a nice snack for noon. The rain in Spain falls mainly on the plains. There's no news of Annie.
16. Listen how the speaker on the tape pronounces the sonorant
[n] in word medial (a) and final (b) positions. Be sure that the back part of the tongue touches the soft palate for [n]. Imitate the reading.
(a) longing, anger, monkey, singer, finger, anchor
(b) sing, bring
17. Practise reading the words above at normal conversational speed. Observe the positional length of [rj]. Try to pronounce each word to the teacher's satisfaction.
18. Listen to your fellow-student reading the sets of words of Ex. 16. Tell him what his errors in the pronunciation of [n] are. Are they phonetic or phonological?
19. Read the following words. Concentrate on the positional length of the sonorant [n]. Be sure to make [rj] shorter before a voiceless consonant.
ankle — angle, bank — bangle
20. In view of special importance given to the correction of possi-
ble mistakes this exercise is meant to draw the students' attention to the differences in the articulation of the final sonorants fn — n]. Transcribe and read the following word-contrasts. Be sure to pronounce the final [n — n] correctly. What kind of mistake is the substitution of one consonant for the other? Explain what changes in the place or the manner of articulation substitute one consonant for the other and affect the meaning of words.
fan — fang win — wing gone — gong
ton — tongue sin — sing son — sung
21. Imitate the speaker's reading of [raen — raeg — rasrjk] several
times. Be sure that your tongue touches your teeth ridge for [n], your palate for [rj] and that there is no explosive release of breath for other sounds.
22. Reading Matter.Listen how the speaker on the tape reads
the phrases below. Practisevreading them,
They ran and rang the bell. I think the thing is impossible. The spring brings many charming things.
Oral Sonorants
23. Listen how the speaker on the tape pronounces the oral sono-
rant [1] in word initial, medial and final positions. Imitate the reading. Be sure to distinguish the clear [1] and the dark Ц].
live, along, all let, allow, beautiful
24. Practise reading the words above at normal conversational speed. Mind the clear and dark variants of the sonorant {1J. Try to pronounce each word to the teacher's satisfaction.
25. Listen to your fellow-student reading the sets of words of Ex. 23. Tell him what his errors in the pronunciation of [1] are. Are they phonetic or phonological?
26. Now read the given words. Be sure to observe the clear and dark variants of [1]. What kind of mistake would you make if you pronounce the clear [11 instead of the dark (+1? How will you correct this error?
lock — call lip — pill
leave — veal pulling — pull j
27. Make a clear distinction between the Russian-English coun
terparts in the following sets of words. Tell the difference
between the opposed [л, л' — 1J.
линь — lean лапа — lap лишь — leash лампа — lamp
28. Read the following word combinations with [1]. Concentrate
on the correct pronunciation of the sonorant in different po
sitions.
a lovely lake; a large loaf; a lean lady; along letter; low
hills
29. Reading Matter.Listen how the speaker on the tape reads
the phrases below.
Let Lucy light a candle and we'll all look for the missing ball. A little pill may well cure a great ilL Tell Will to fill the pail with milk, please. He lost his life in the struggle for liberty.
30. Transcribe and intone the phrases above. Practise reading them yourself at normal conversational speed.
31. Listen how the speaker on the tape pronounces the sonorant
[w] in word initial and medial positions. Imitate the reading. Do not forget to pronounce the sonorant with the lips firmly rounded and slightly protruded. wet, away, wave, inward, wood, aware, wear, always
32. Practise reading the sets of words above at normal conversa-
tional speed. Be careful to pronounce the sound correctly. Try to read each word to the teacher's satisfaction.
33. Listen to your fellow-student reading the sets of words of Ex. 31. Tell him what his errors in the pronunciation of [w] are. Are they phonetic or phonological?
34. Read the following word combinations with [w] initially. Be careful to pronounce the sonorant correctly.
a weeping willow; a wide window; a white wolf; to wear a watch; to wash with water; to wind a watch
35. In view of special importance given to the correction of possi
ble mistakes this exercise is meant to draw the students' at
tention to the differences in the articulation of the sonorant
[wj and the fricative [vJ..Read the following word contrasts.
Do not forget to make [w] bilabial and [v] labio-dental. Is the
substitution of fv] for [wj a phonological mistake? Explain
what changes in the place or the manner of articulation sub
stitute one consonant for the other.
wet — vet very well
west — vest winter vacation wheel — veal worse verse
36. Reading Matter.Listen how the speaker on the tape reads
the phrases below. Practise reading them.
Which word would one want if one wanted a word? It was a pleasure to watch the wonderful way in which they worked. "What", "why", "when", and "where" are the words we require quite often when we want to ask questions.
37. Listen how the speaker on the tape pronounces the sonorant [j] in word initial and medial positions.. Imitate the reading. Make the sound [j] short and weak.
young, yard, new, few yet, yacht, dew, beauty
38. Practise reading the sets of words above at normal conversational speed. Be careful not to make any friction in the [j] glide. Try to pronounce each word to the teacher's satisfaction.
i%. Listen to your fellow-student reading the words of Ex. 37. Tell him what his errors in the pronunciation of (j] are. Are they phonetic or phonological?
40. Make clear distinction between the Russian-English counter
parts in the following sets of words. Tell the difference be
tween the opposed Russian and English [j].
ел, ель — yell ярд — yard
ионы — yearn янки — yankee
41. Read the following word combinations with [j] in different
positions. Be careful to pronounce the sonorant correctly.
a unique yacht; a European university; a yellow suit; a new yard; a new year
42. Listen how the speaker on the tape reads the phrases below.
Transcribe and intone them. Practise reading them yourself
at normal conversational speed.
Yesterday I heard a curious and beautiful new tune. Don't argue about duty, or you'll make me furious — I know the value of duty. Excuse me if I refuse, but this suit isn't suitable.
43. Listen how the speaker on the tape pronounces the sono
rant [r] in word initial and medial positions. Imitate the read
ing. Be sure not to touch the alveolar ridge with the tip of
the tongue. The tip should not vibrate either.
rich, very, umbrella
red, sorry, break v
44. Practise reading the sets of words above at normal conversational speed. Try to pronounce each word to the teacher's satisfaction. Listen to your fellow-student reading them. Tell him what his errors in the pronunciation of [r] are.
45. Make a clear distinction between the Russian-English counterparts in the following sets of words. Tell the difference between the opposed sonorants [p, p' — rj.
риск — risk ракетка — racket
радиатор — radiator
46. In view of special importance given to the correction of pos
sible mistakes this exercise is meant to draw the students'
attention to the differences in the articulation of the sono
rants [r, 1]. Read the following word contrasts. Be sure not to
touch the alveolar ridge with the tip of the tongue when [r] is
pronounced. What kind of mistake is made if [1] is heard
instead of [rj? Explain what changes in the place and the manner of articulation substitute one consonant for the other?
rip — lip right — light *
wrap — lap wrist — list
47. Read the following word combinations and phrases connect
ing them with the linking [r] at the junction of words. Tran
scribe them.
sister-in-law; a pair of shoes; Where are they going?; The car at the door isn't mine.
48. Reading Matter.Listen how the speaker on the tape reads
the phrases below. Practise reading them.
Those red roses are really very pretty. The real reason is really rather curious. Harris rarefy reads literary review.
MODIFICATION OF CONSONANTS IN CONNECTED SPEECH
Monophthongs
M
♦
1. Listen how the speaker on the tape pronounces the following
words.
ink, in, him. sit, brick, pretty, money
2. Read the words yourself. Pay attention to the vowel initial. No glottal stop should be heard before it.
3. Listen carefully to your follow-student reading the words of Ex. 1. Correct his errors in the articulation of (i].
i. Now transcribe and read the following word contrasts. Concentrate on the difference in vowel length.
bid —bit; fid — fit; hid — hit
5. Read tile following sets of words. Tell the difference between
the opposed vowels.
бит — bit — быт; мил — mill — мыл; пил — pill — пыл
6. Reading Matter.Listen how the speaker on the tape reads the
phrases below.
The little inn is in this village. This is a silly film.
7. Transcribe and intone the phrases above. Practise reading
them yourself at normal conversational speed.
[e]
1. Listen how the speaker on the tape pronounces the following
words:
else, egg, bed, leg, get, neck
2. Read the words yourself. Pay attention to the vowel initial. No glottal stop should be heard before it.
3. Listen carefully to your fellow-student reading the words of Ex. 1. Correct his errors in the articulation of [e].
4. Now transcribe and read the following word contrasts. Concentrate on the difference in vowel length.
bed — bet; lead — let; said — set
5. Read the following sets of words. Tell the difference between
the opposed vowels.
спел — spell; нет — net; бег — beck
6. Reading Matter.Listen how the speakei on the tape reads the
phrases below.
Ted meant to spend the night in a tent.* Fred felt unwell.
7. Transcribe and intone the phrases above. Practise reading
these phrases yourself at normal conversational speed.
[ae]
1. Listen bow the speaker on the tape reads the following words:
ad, and, bag, bad, rash, sack
2. Read the words yourself. Pay attention to the vowel initial. No glottal stop should be heard before it.
3. Listen carefully to your fellow-student reading the words of Ex. 1. Correct his errors in the articulation of [ae].
4. Now transcribe and read the following word contrasts. Con
centrate on the difference in vowel length.
bad — bat; fad — fat, bag — back; rag — rack
5. Read the following pairs of words. Tell the difference between
the opposed vowels.
печь — patch; бег — back; лад — lad; банк — bank
6. Reading Matter.Listen how the speaker on the tape reads the
phrases below.
Handsome is as handsome does. Harry and Pat are standing hand in hand.
7. Transcribe and intone the sentences above. Practise reading
the exercise yourself at norma! conversational speed.
[c] - [*]
1. Transcribe and read the following word contrasts. Make as
clear distinction as possible between the quality of the vowels
[e] and [ae].
fed — fad; bed — bad; set — sat; slept — slappted
2. Say what articulatory features of the vowels [e] and (ae] differentiate the meaning of the words above.
3. Reading Matter.Listen how the speaker on the tape reads the dialogue below.
S: Heavens Dad, let me help. You'll end up with back trouble again, if you carry that any further. D: Yes, it's heavy enough, I confess. It'll be all right, if you lend a hand, Ben.
4. Practise reading the exercise above. Go through each sen
tence several times until you pfoduce it rapidly and smoothly.
Make as clear distinction as possible between the correlated
vowels.
[a:j i. Listen how the speaker on the tape pronounces the following words:
arm, answer, car, jar, hard, heart, park
2. Read the words yourself. Pay attention to the vowel initial. No glottal stop should be heard before it.
3. Listen carefully to your fellow-student reading the words of Ex. 1. Correct his errors in the articulation of [a:].
4. Now transcribe and read the following word contrasts. Con
centrate on the difference in vowel length.
car — card — cart; ha — halve — half
5. Read the following sets of words. Tell the difference between
the opposed vowels.
пас — pass; лак — lark; кант — can't
6. Reading Matter.Listen how the speaker on the tape reads the
phrases below.
Aunt Martha lives near Marble Arch, which isn't far. After the party we started to argue. His father isn't hard-hearted.
7. Transcribe and intone the phrases above. Practise reading the
exercise above at normal conversational speed.
[л]
1. Listen how the speaker on the tape pronounces the following
words:
under, uncle, rub, love, cut, rough
2. Read the words yourself. Pay attention to the vowel initial. No glottal stop should be heard before it.
3. Listen carefully to your fellow-student reading the words of Ex. 1. Correct his errors in the articulation of [a].
4. Now transcribe and read the following word contrasts. Concentrate your attention on the difference in vowel length.
bud — but; lug — luck; rug — ruck; buzz — bus
5. Read the following sets of words. Tell the difference between
the opposed vowels.
дал — dull; дан — done; лак — luck; рак — ruck
6. Reading Matter.Listen how the speaker on the tape reads the
phrases below.
When your work's done, come out in the sun and have some fun. 1 like bread-and-butter with honey. Some love onions for lunch or supper, but when one has stuffed oneself with onions, one isn't much loved, is one?
7. Practise reading the exercise above at normal conversational
speed.
(0-1 - [А]
1. Transcribe and read the following word contrasts, Make as
clear distinction as possible between the quality of the vowels
[a:] and (a).
calm — come; barn — bun; cart — cut; calf — cuff
2. Say what articulatory features of the vowels [a:] and [a] differentiate the meaning of the words above.
3. Reading Matter.Listen how the speaker on the tape reads the
phrases below.
I've had no fun since last March. His aunt is not young, but she is full of charm. Well begun is half done.
4. Practise reading the exercise above. Go through each sen
tence several times until you produce it rapidly and smoothly.
1. Listen how the speaker on the tape pronounces the following
words:
on, of, job, was, top, got
2. Read the words yourself. Pay attention to the vowel initial. No glottal stop should be heard before it.
3. Listen carefully to your fellow-student reading the words of Ex. 1. Correct his errors in the articulation of [o].
4. Now transcribe and read the following word contrasts. Concentrate on the difference in vowel length.
dog — dock; log — lock; cod — cot; nod — not
5. Read the following sets of words. Tell the difference between
the opposed vowels.
сок — sock; лог — lock; рот — rot; плот — plot
6. Reading Matter.Listen how the speaker on the tape reads the
phrases below.
John is strong. Olive is not. Tom's got a lot of spots on his shirt. A little pot is soon hot.
7. Transcribe and intone the phrases above. Practise reading the
phrases yourself at normal conversational speed.
1. Listen how the speaker on the tape pronounces the following
words:
awe, all, jaw, door, board, storm, talk, forth
2. Read the words yourself. Pay attention to the vowel initial. No glottal stop should be heard before it.
3. Listen carefully to your fellow-student reading the words of Ex. 1. Correct his errors in the articulation of (aj.
4. Now transcribe and read the following word contrasts. Concentrate your attention on the difference in vowel length.
snore — snored — snort; bore — board — bought
5. Read the following sets of words. Tell the difference between
the opposed vowels.
кот — caught; бот — bought; стол — stall; кол — call
6. Reading Matter.Listen how the speaker on the tape reads the
phrases below.
Paul snores worse than a horse. We close the doors when he snores. There ought to be laws to prevent such snores.
7. Transcribe and intone the phrases above. Practise reading the
sentences yourself at normal conversational speed.
[d] - [э:]
1. Transcribe and read the following word contrasts. Make as
clear distinction as possible between the quality of the vowels
jd] and [э.].
cod — cord; swan — sworn; shot — short; cock — cork
2. Say what articulatory features of the vowels [o] and {d:J differentiate the meaning of the words above.
3. Reading Matter.Listen how the speaker on the tape reads the phrases below.
A warm hot water bottle. What do you want hot water for?
4. Practise reading the exercise above. Go through each sen
tence several times until you produce it rapidly and smoothly.
.406
М
1. Listen how the speaker on the tape pronounces the following
words.
full, room, could, cook, push, took
2. Read the words yourself. Pay attention to the vowel initial. No glottal stop should be heard before it.
3. Listen carefully to your fellow-student reading the words of Ex, 1. Correct his errors in the articulation of [o].
4. Read the following sets of words. Tell the difference between the opposed vowels.
фут — foot; лук — look; пуд — put; суд — soot
5. Reading Matter.Listen how the speaker on the tape reads the
phrases below. >
Put some sugar in the pudding. The old woman took a book and sat in the nook.
6. Transcribe and intone the sentences above. Practise reading
the phrases yourself at normal conversational speed.
З:1
1. Listen how the speaker on the tape pronounces the following
words:
earn, urge, fur, her, heard, serve, birth, hurt
2. Read the words yourself. Pay attention to the vowel initial. Don't make a glottal stop before it.
3. Listen carefully to your fellow-student reading the words above. Correct his errors in the articulation of the vowel [з:].
4. Now transcribe and read the following word contrasts. Concentrate on the difference in vowel length.
spur — spurred — spurt; . her — heard — hurt
5. Reading Matter.Listen how the speaker on the tape reads the
phrases below.
Pearl is a circus girl. First come first served. It's the early bird that catches the worm.
6. Transcribe and intone the phrases above. Read the phrases
yourself at normal conversational speed.
la) - [з:]
1. Read the words below. Make as clear distinction as possible
between the vowels [y.] and [з:).
store — stir; for — fur; torn — turn; walk — work
2. Say what articulatory features of (o:J and [з:] differentiate the
meaning of words above.
[el - (з:1
1. Read the words below. Make as clear distinction as possible
between the vowels [e] and [з:].
head — heard; bed — bird; best — burst; bet — Bert
2. Say what articulatory features of [e] and [з:] differentiate the
meaning of the words above.
1. Listen how the speaker on the tape pronounces the following
words:
about, along, distance, peasant, ever, never
2. Read the words yourself. Pay attention to the neutral vowel initial, no glottal stop should be heard before it. Make a clear distinction between the neutral sounds in mid and final positions. Be sure the final neutral vowel sounds more open.
3. Listen carefully to your fellow-student reading the words above. Tell him what his errors in the articulation of [э] are.
4. Now read the following word contrasts. Concentrate on the difference in the quality of the neutral vowel in different positions.
workers — worker; mothers — mother; waiters — waiter
5. Transcribe the following words. Underline the syllables in
which the vowels are weakened to the neutral sounds. Prac
tise reading them.
perform, commit, silence, arrive, breakfast, particular, solemn
6. Listen to the following sets of words. Transcribe them. Read
them. Do not confuse the vowels [э] and [i]. Say what articula
tory features of these sounds differentiate the meaning of the
opposed words.
affect — effect catchers — catches
dancers — dances censors — senses
7. Reading Matter.Listen how the speaker on the tape reads proverbs below. Read them yourself.
Great barkers are no biters. We never know the value of water till the well is dry.
Pattern Four. (Low Pre-Head +) Low Level Head + Low Fall
(+Tail)
Model: I think it's going Now _ isn't that infuriating!
to rain.
Stimulus Response
What would you like for dinner? I don't know.
What's that tray made of? It's made of wood.
Pattern Five. (Low Pre-Head +) Stepping Head + Low Fall
(+Tail)
Model: How was he ^ Just the 'same as he
looking? xalways does.
Stimulus Response
I hate cabbage. So do I.
I can't hear Julia. Neither can I.
Your teacher or your fellow-student will suggest the stimulus. You in turn reply using the patterns of Group I. The drill will continue until every student has participated. Keep the exer cise moving on at normal conversational speed.
Pattern One. (Low Pre-Nucleus +) Low Fall (+ Tail)
Stimulus Response
Can you do it alone? Of course I can.
I don't know her name. I'll help you.
Pattern Two. (Low Pre-Head +) Falling Head + Low FaU (+ Tail)
Stimulus . Response
Where is your house ? Not very far from Trafalgar
Square. Do you like the dress? It isn't quite what I want.
Pattern Three. (Low Pre-Head +) High (Medium) Level Head + Low Fall (+ Tail)
Stimulus Response
Have you any news of Lily? I was talking to her yesterday. What would you do? I simply can't imagine.
Pattern Four. (Low Pre-Head +) Low Level Head + Low Fall
(+Tail)
Stimulus Response
It looks like rain. It would be better to stay at
Home then. Can I sell you a ticket? I've already got one.
Pattern Five. (Low Pre-Head +) Stepping Head + Low Fall
(♦Tail)
Stimulus Response
Do you like it? I can't make up my mind about
It. How did you spend the I stayed at home and worked.
Morning?
I
Stimulus Response
It's not very valuable, is It cost over three hundred
it? pounds.
Was it a rough crossing No, the sea was as smooth as a
then? millpond.
Pattern Two. (Low Pre-Head +) Falling Head + Low Rise
(+Tail)
Model: I'm leaving for Kiev How Morig do you in'tend to
tomorrow night. ,stay there?
Stimulus Response
When shall we go sightseeing? Any time that suits you.
I used to live in the capital. And where do you live now?
Pattern Three. (Low Pre-Head +) High (Medium) Head + Low
Rise (+Tail)
Model: 1 don't think I'll come. "* Why, not?
Stimulus Response
Have you posted those letters? Not yet.
I've lost my key. Where did you put it?
Pattern'Four. (Low Pre-Head +) Low Level Head + Low Rise
(+Tail)
Model: Shall I speak to him? It's _»up to,you.
Stimulus Response
What's your opinion of his work? It's not bad.
When will you be back? As soon as I can.
Pattern Two. (Low Pre-Head +) Falling Head + Low Rise
(+Tail)
Stimulus Response
I'm afraid Helen isn't getting She should do her exer-
on very well in French. cises regularly.
He is leaving. Is he going home?
Pattern Three. (Low Pre-Head +) High (Medium) Head + Low
Rise (+ Tail)
Stimulus Response
She's an excellent cook. I shouldn't say so.
Good evening, doctor. What's the matter?
Pattern Four. (Low Pre-Head +) Low Level Head + Low Rise
(+Tail)
Stimulus Response
Are you busy just now? Not for a few minutes.
So I'm late. It doesn't matter.
CONTINTI
Introduction.................................................................................... I
Part One. The Production of Speech................................................ Й
Chapter I. The Organs of Speech and Their Work............................................. ,....... I
Chapter II. Articulation and Breathing Practice.......................................................... II
Part Two. The Sounds of Speech.......................... ..„........................................... 22
Chapter I. Sounds and Phonemes.............................................................................. 22
Vowels, and Consonants........................................................................... 23
Chapter II. Consonants. Principles of Classification.................................................. 24
Class A. Noise Consonants.................................................................................... 32
Constrictive Fricative Consonants.......................................................... 42
Occlusive-Constrictive Consonants........................................................ 51
Class B. Sonorous Consonants............................................................................... 54
Chapter III. Modification of Consonants in Connected Speech................................. 66
Assimilation............................................................................................ 68
Fundamental Consonant Allophones...................................................... 76
Chapter IV. Vowels. Principles of Classification....................................................... 85
Monophthongs....................................................................................... 89
Diphthongoids...................................................................................... 103
Diphthongs........................................................................................... 109.
Vowel Sequences............................................................................ '..... 120
Chapter V. Modification of Vowels in Connected Speech ...................................... 122
Reduction.............................................................................................. 122
Chapter VI. Strong and Weak Forms....................................................................... 125
Part Three. Syllable Structure........................................................................ 133
Chapter I. Syllable Formation ................................................................................. 133
Chapter II. Syllable Division.................................................................................... 134
Part Four. Word Stress....................................................................................... 138
Chapter I. Manifestation of Word Stress and Its Linguistic
Function.................................................................................................. 138
Chapter II. The Degrees and the Vosition of Word Stress....................................... 139
Part Five. Intonation........................................................................................... 147
Chapter I. Manifestation of Intonation and Its Linguistic
Function................................................................................................. 147
Chapter II. Basic Intonation Patterns............................................................. ,........ 149
Emphasis................................................................................................ 161
Classification of Intonation Patterns....................................................... 164
Intonation Patterns and Meaning............................................................ 165
Group I. Low Fall.................................................................................. 166
Group II. High Fall................................................................................ 172
Group III. Rise-Fall............................................................................... 176
Group IV. Low Rise.............................................................................. 178
Group V. High Rise.............................................................................. 183
Group VI. Fall-Rise (High Fall + Rise)................................................ 185
Group VII. Rise-Fail-Rise.................................................................. 18Я
Group VIII. Mid-Level....................................................................... 190
Chapter III. Intonation Patterns and Sentence Types.............................................. 192
Chapter IV. Sequence of Tones.............................................................................. 199
Chapter V. Sentence-Stress................................................................................... 212
Manifestation of Sentence-Stress........................................................ 212
Types of Sentence-Stress..................................................................... 213
Chapter VI. Tempo of Speech................................................................................. 219
Chapter VII. Rhythm............................................................................................... 223
Part Six. Phonostylistics.................................................................................... 228
Chapter I. General Considerations.......................................................................... 228
Chapter II. Stylistic Use of Intonation.................................................................... 223
Chapter III. Intonational Styles............................................................................... 239
Informational (Formal) Style............................................................... 239
Scientific (Academic) Style................................................................. 240
Declamatory Style............................................................................... 245
Publicistic Style................................................................................... 248
Familiar (Conversational) Style........................................................... 251
Intonational Styles and Modification of Sounds'
in Connected Speech........................................................................... 279
Part Seven. Patterns of Exercises.................................................................. 282
Sounds of Speech................................................................................ 282
Syllable Structure............................................................................ .-...317
Word Stress......................................................................................... 318
Stylistic Use of Intonation.................................................................. .320
Учебное издание
Соколова Марина Алексеевна,
Гинтовт Ксения Павловна,
Кантер Леонид Александрович и др.
ПРАКТИЧЕСКАЯ ФОНЕТИКА АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА
Учебник для студентов высших учебных заведений
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