Indirect Speech Acts - Конспект Лекций, раздел Образование, Конспекты лекций по теоретической грамматике Reference. The Expressed And The Implied Meaning Of The Sentence. ...
Reference. The expressed and the implied meaning of the sentence.
The presupposition and its types.
Classification of speech acts (J. Austin, J. R. Searle).
Speech act theory broadly explains these utterances as having three parts or aspects: locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts. Locutionary acts are simply the speech acts that have taken place. Illocutionary acts are the real actions which are performed by the utterance, where saying equals doing, as in betting, plighting one's troth, welcoming and warning. Perlocutionary acts are the effects of the utterance on the listener, who accepts the bet or pledge of marriage, is welcomed or warned.
Some linguists have attempted to classify illocutionary acts into a number of categories or types. David Crystal, quoting J.R. Searle, gives five such categories: representatives, directives, commissives, expressives and declarations. (Perhaps he would have preferred declaratives, but this term was already taken as a description of a kind of sentence that expresses a statement.)
The conversational implicature is a message that is not found in the plain sense of the sentence. The speaker implies it. The hearer is able to infer (work out, read between the lines) this message in the utterance, by appealing to the rules governing successful conversational interaction.
In analyzing utterances and searching for relevance we can use a hierarchy of propositions - those that might be asserted, presupposed, entailed or inferred from any utterance.
Assertion: what is asserted is the obvious, plain or surface meaning of the utterance (though many utterances are not assertions of anything).
Presupposition: what is taken for granted in the utterance. “I saw the Mona Lisa in the Louvre” presupposes that the Mona Lisa is in the Louvre.
Entailments: logical or necessary corollaries of an utterance, thus, the above example entails: I saw something in the Louvre.
Inferences: these are interpretations that other people draw from the utterance, for which we cannot always directly account.
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Fundamentals of grammar
Morphology and syntax. Grammatical category, grammatical form and grammatical meaning. The theory of oppositions. Types of oppositions. Oppositional reduction. Ne
Oppositional reduction. Neutralization and transposition.
In various contextual positions one member of an opposition can be used in the position of the other. This phenomenon can be referred to as reduction of oppositions.
A sty
General characteristics
Semantic features. The noun possesses the grammatical meaning of thingness, substantiality.
Morphologicalfeatures of the noun. In accordance with the morp
The category of case
There is no universal point of view as to the case system in English. Different scholars stick to a different number of cases.
1. There are two cases. (limited case theory) The Common one
The Problem of Gender in English
According to some language analysts (B.Ilyish, F.Palmer, and E.Morokhovskaya), nouns have no category of gender in Modern English. The difference between such nouns as actor and actress
The Article
The question is whether the article is a separate part of speech (i.e. a word) or a word-morpheme. If we treat the article as a word, we shall have to admit that English has only two articles - the
A General Outline of the Verb as a Part of Speech
Semantic features of the verb. The verb possesses the grammatical meaning of verbiality - the ability to denote a process developing in time.
Morphological features of the verb.
The Category of Number
The category of number is based on a two-member opposition: singular vs. plural. An interesting feature of this category is the fact that it is blended with person: number and person make use of th
The category of tense
The category of tense finds different interpretations with different scholars.
According to one view, there are only two tenses in English: past and present. Most British scholars do not r
The category of temporal correlation
There are three major approaches to defining the essence of perfective forms in English:
The category of perfect is a peculiar tense category, i. e. a category which should be classed in t
The category of voice
The category of voice reflects the objective relations between the action itself and the subject or object of the action. The category of voice is realized through the opposition Active voice::Pass
The Category of Mood
The category of mood expresses the relation of nominative content of the sentence towards reality. Hence there are two moods – one presenting the action as real and the other presenting the action
Non-Finite Forms of the Verb
The infinitive and its properties. The categories of the infinitive. The gerund and its properties. The categories of gerund. The notion of half-gerund. The present partic
The Infinitive
The infinitive combines the features of the verb with those of the noun. It is the form of the verb which expresses a process in general, i.e. a process that is not restricted (i.e. concretized) by
The Gerund
Similar to the infinitive, the gerund is the name of a process, but its substantive meaning is more strongly pronounced than that of the infinitive: unlike the infinitive, the gerund can be modifie
Participle I
The present participle is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb with those of the adjective and adverb, serving as the qualifying-processual name.
Ve
Participle II
The past participle is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb with those of the adjective, serving as the qualifying-processual name. Unlike the present participl
A general outline of the adjective
Semantic features. The adjective expresses the property of an entity. Typically, adjectives denote states, usually permanent states, although there are also adjectives which
Classification of adjectives
All the adjectives are traditionally divided into two large subclasses: qualitative and relative. Relative adjectives express such properties of a substance as are determined by the d
The problem of the category of state
These words are regarded by some grammarians as a separate part of speech which has been variously referred to as the category of state words, adlinks, and statives (B. Ilyish; B. S. Khaimovich and
The category of comparison
The category of comparison is constituted by the opposition of three forms of the adjective: the positive, the comparative, and the superlative.
There are three ways of forming degrees of
A general outline of the adverb
Semantic features. The adverb is usually defined as a word expressing either property of an action, or property of another property, or circumstances in which an action occurs
The Preposition
Semantic features
The preposition is traditionally defined as a word expressing relations between words in the sentence. The weakness of the traditional definition is that it does n
The Conjunction
Semantic features
Every conjunction has its own meaning, expressing some connection or other existing between phenomena in extralinguistic reality.
Syntactic features
The Interjection
Semantic features
The characteristic features which distinguish interjections from practically all other words lie in a different sphere. The interjections, as distinct from nouns,
The Modal Word
The modal word, occupying in the sentence a more pronounced or less pronounced detached position, expresses the attitude of the speaker to the reflected situation and its parts. Modal words stand i
Lecture 9
The Phrase: Principles of Classification
The phrase as the basic unit of syntax. Differential features of the phrase and of the sentence. The phrase in the hierarchy
The Simple and the Composite Sentence
The notion of sentence. The sentence as a language unit. The notions of predication and modality. Structural classifications of simple sentences. The structural scheme of th
Sentence Parts. Syntactic Processes
The traditional scheme of sentence parsing. The main sentence parts: the subject and the predicate, their types. The secondary sentence parts: attribute, object, adverbial
Actual Division of the Sentence
Semantic roles. The basic principles of sentence division. Actual division of the sentence. The notion of theme and rheme. The notion of transition. The notion of
Pragmatics. Pragmatic Types of Sentences
The basic notions of pragmatics. Context of situation. Pragmatic types of sentences and their contextual transposition. Principles of cooperation. Maxims of polite
Sentence in the Text. Cohesion and Coherence
Text as an object of research. The problem of the text in the hierarchy of language levels. The notions of cohesion and coherence. Language means of textual cohesion. Repre
Text Linguistics. The Problem of the Text Unit
The tasks of text linguistics. Textual units. The notion of the supra-phrasal unity. The supra-phrasal unity and the paragraph. Textual categories. The category of
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