Phonostylistics came into existence as an attempt to start bridging the gap between linguistic and extra-linguistic factors in analysing stylistic differentiation of oral texts.
Phonostylistics is not just a new brand of linguistics, to set side by side on the shelves with all the old brands. It is a whole different way of looking at phonetic phenomena. It is a way of doing phonetic science which includes various extra-linguistic factors, instead of systematically excluding them.
There is no consensus of opinion as to what grounds there are for classifying some factors as linguistic, and some as extra-linguistic (or non-linguistic). The most realistic approach is to introduce the scale of linguisticness, ranging from 'most* to 'least' linguistic. At the 'most linguistic' end would be classified those features of utterance most readily describable in terms of closed systems of contrasts, which have a relatively clear phonetic definition and which are relatively easily integrated with other aspects of linguistic structure, eg phonemic distinctions, syllables, stress, nuclear tone type and placement, intonation group boundaries, pause, etc.
At the other, 'least linguistic' end would be placed all phenomena of speech that are not language, i. e. those feature of utterance which seem to have little potential for entering into systemic relationships, which have a relatively isolated function and cannot be easily integrated with other aspects of language structure, eg vocal effects lacking any semantic force (such as breathy and raspy voice quality or coughing). Moreover, under
" The term 'oral text' is used here in reference to any piece of discourse in its sound envelope unrestricted in length, comprising at least one meaningful utterance.
the heading of 'least linguistic' would also fall the situational background against which the linguistic features are used. A sub-set of situational factors (or variables) forms the so-called extra-linguistic context, that is, everything non-linguistic which exists at the time of using the linguistic features.
As the term suggests, phonostylistics is concerned with the study of phonetic phenomena and processes from the stylistic point of view. It cropped up as a result of a certain amount of functional overlap between phonetics and stylistics,* thereby there is no full agreement as to whether it is to be related to the former or the latter. Another approach is to grant phonostylistics an independent status. Despite the recent dramatic increase of interest in the subject, too little empirical work has been done for any well-grounded 'theory of phonostylistics' to emerge as yet. The attempts made so far have resulted m a general recognition of the existence and the importance of this linguistic domain, but its contours have not been more or less definitely outlined.
In dealing with the objectives of phonostylistics, it should be taken into account that it bears on quite a number of adjacent linguistic and non-linguistic disciplines such as paralinguistics, psychology and psycholinguistics, sociology and sociolinguis-tics, dialectology, literary criticism, aesthetics, information theory, etc. Since they are confronted with certain overlapping issues and there are no rigorous functional boundary lines to be drawn, it can be inferred that phonostylistics has an interdisciplinary status.
The more one examines speech in its full interactional context, the more one finds examples of utterance where the primary determinants of the speaker's identity and purpose, and of the listener's response, are phonostylistic. 'Say it as if you meant it', 'You don't sound as if you were a diplomat', and the unavoidable 'It wasn't what he said, but the way that he said it' provide a clear insight into the essential characteristic of phonostylistics, i. e. it is concerned with how a person talks about something rather than vWiaf he talks about. This problem plays a peripheral
Stylistics has the same divisions as linguistics and there are phonetic, lexical and syntactic levels in the study of style, whereas within the scope of phonetics there are features fraught with stylistic possibilities.
role in phonetics, but it receives high priority consideration in phonostylistics. To solve the problem one has to describe in minutest detail stylistically marked modifications of vowels, consonants, vowel-consonant sequences, syllabification, stress, intonation, as well as all the non-linguistic features of utterance.' However, it should be borne in mind that the problem in its entirety is nowhere near solution.
Now we shall attempt to delineate the range of issues that are integral to phonostylistics.
1. The Phonetic Norm and Deviation (or Variation).A
phonostylistician is usually interested in deviations from norms
rather than in norms themselves, although the norms have to be
determined before deviations from them can be noted and inter
preted. The norm is regarded as the invariant of the phonetic
patterns circulating in language-in-action at a given period of
time."* Deviations from these patterns may be great but they
never exceed the range of tolerance set by the invariant, other
wise an utterance may become unrecognizable or misleading, as
in the case of a very strong foreign accent.
2. Phonetic Synonyms,i. e. utterance variations, conditioned
by numerous situational (extra-linguistic) factors, for instance,
'lemme-let me', 'gonna — going to', 'c'mon — come on',
'g'by — good-bye', 'awreddy — already', don't-cha — don't
you', 'prob'ly — probably', 't'day — today', 's'pose — suppose',
etc. This involves the study of reduction and assimilation pro
cesses, sound elision and ecthlipsis, as well as phonemic distinc
tions neutralization.
Variants of words, differing in accent placement, should also be classified as phonetic synonyms, eg "hospitable — hos'pitable', "formidable — formidable', "interesting — inte'resting', '.ciga'rette — 'cigarette', "kilometre — kilometre', "adult — a'dulf and the like.
3. Euphonology(Gk. 'eu' — well; 'phone* — a sound; 'log
os' — a word), dealing with characterisation of speech sounds
" An oral text, recorded on a magnetic tape or its graphical representation 'on paper', is the source of phonostylistic information. In belles-lettres such information is indicated in an explicative manner (eg stage directions, italics, a special text arrangement, ideographic devices, etc.).
" It is interesting to note that the norms represent to a certain extent the ideals of speech behaviour cherished by a language community, they do not always coincide with the actual speech behaviour used.
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from a euphonic point of view. Euphony presupposes pleasantness or smoothness of sound, assimilation of the sounds of syllables to facilitate pronunciation and to please the ear.
The fact that different sounds may be agreeable or disagree-ble to the ear is a matter of common knowledge; it does not take a trained ear to detect that differences exist. For example, it has been noted that in Russian [ë] is the most musical sound, [p] is a strident, jerky sound opposed to the liquid [ë]; [ç] and (ñ] are dry, sibilant sounds.
Euphonology also treats arrangement of sounds which has a certain aesthetic value, eg alliteration, assonance, rhyme and other types of sound repetition.
4. Sound Symbolism.It is based on the assumption that sepa
rate sounds due to their specific features are able to evoke cer
tain ideas, emotions, perceptions and images. For instance, it has
been suggested that the English vowel (u.) generally conveys
sorrow and seriousness, while [t] produces the feeling of joy.
However, it is realistic to generalise only if such information is
provided and supported by statistics, otherwise it is a matter of
individual perception and therefore subjective.
Besides, sound symbolism manifests itself in a combination of speech sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature, by people, by things or by animals, eg splash, giggle, bang, purr and so on. It is noteworthy that members of different language communities may perceive and imitate these sounds differently, in accordance with the phonological systems of their languages (see the table on page 232 which exemplifies the use of words to imitate sounds produced by animals, in Russian, English, Spanish, Danish and Japanese).
5. Stylistic Devices Coded or Carriedby Phonetic Expressive
Means(eg irony, repetition, climax, inversion, etc.).
The following example illustrates the use of intonation for emotional climax:
HALI: Then we will drink.
SANDRA: All right — we'll drink — where's your glass? HALI (delighted): That is xGOOD | — that is MAGNIFICENT | — that is 'KNOCK-out!
(N. Coward. "South Sea Bubble")
The emotional tension is produced here at the expense of the gradual increase in emotional evaluation of the words good,
magnificent, knock-out, pronounced on a gradually rising pitch-level (the Low Fall, the Mid Fall and the High Fall respectively).
6. Genres of Speech in the Context of Oral Literature.For
example, the so-called 'folk-tale' style is always phonetically identified, as in the following utterance:
-* Once upon a ,TIME | there ~* lived a ,GIRL, | who Uost her 'father and ,MOTHER ^ when she was iquite a 'tiny XCHILD.
("Spindle, Shuttle and Needle")
7. Phonetic Functional Styles.These styles are related to so
cial setting or circumstances in which language is used. It is a
truth universally acknowledged, that a person speaks differently
on different occasions (eg when chatting with intimate friends or
talking to official persons, when delivering a lecture, speaking
over the radio or giving a dictation exercise). In other words, the
choice of a speech style is situatiunally determined.
The problem of speech typology and phonetic differences conditioned by such extra-linguistic factors as age, sex, personality traits, status, occupation, purpose, social identity (or 'class dialect') and the emotional state of the speaker also bear on the issue.
Summing up, phonostylistics is concerned with a wide range of correlated issues. Our knowledge of many of them is, however, still very defective.
This part focuses on phonetic styles, with the main emphasis being laid on intonation.