THE MANNER OF ARTICULATION

The manner of articulation of consonants is determined by the type of obstruction. The obstructions may be complete, in­complete and momentary. When the obstruction is complete the organs of speech are in contact and the air stream meets a clo­sure in the mouth or nasal cavities as in the production of the English [p, b, t, d, k, g, tf, <&, m , n, n] and the Russian [п, п', б, 6', к, к', г, г', ч', ц, м, м н, н'].

In case of an incomplete obstruction the active organ of. speech moves towards the point of articulation and the air stream goes through the narrowing between them as in the pro­duction of the English [f, v, s, z, в, д, J", 3, h, w, 1, r, j] and the Rus­sian (ф, ф в, в', с. с', з, з ш, ш х, х', л, л', j]. Momentary obstructions are formed in the production of the Russian sono­rants [p, p'] when the tip of the tongue taps quickly several times against the teeth ridge.

According to the manner of articulation consonants may be of four groups:

1. Occlusive.

2. Constrictive.

3. Occlusive-constrictive (affricates).

4. Rolled.

1. Occlusiveconsonants are sounds in the production which the air stream meets a complete obstruction in mouth. Occlusive noise consonants are called stops because the breath is com­pletely stopped at some point articulation and then it is released with a slight explosion, that is why, they are also called plo­sives. According to the work of the vocal cords stops may be voiced and voiceless.

Occlusive voiced consonants are: the English [b, d, gj and the Russian [б, б', д. д', г, г'].

Occlusive voiceless consonants are: the English [p, t, k) and the Russian [п, п', т, т', к, к'].

According to the force of articulation English voiced stops are weak (lenis), voiceless are strong (fortis).

The particular quality of a sonorant depends on the position of the soft palate. Occlusive sonorantsare also made with a complete obstruction but the soft palate is lowered and the air stream escapes through the nose, so they are nasal.

The English occlusive nasal sonorants: (m, n, rj].

The Russian occlusive nasal sonorants: [ Mf M i Hi H j.

2. Constrictiveconsonants are those in the production of
which the air stream meets an incomplete obstruction in the res­
onator, so the air passage is constricted. Both noise consonants
and sonorants may be constrictive.

Constrictive noise consonants are called fricatives, i. e. the consonant sounds in the articulation of which the air pas­sage is constricted and the air escapes through the narrowing with friction.

The English fricatives: [f, v, в, d, s, z,/, 3, hj; the Russian frica­tives: [ф, ф', в, в', с, с', з, з', ш, ш ж. х, х'].

Fricatives may also differ:

In the work of the vocal cords.

In the degree of force of articulation.

According to the work of the vocal cords they may be voiced and voiceiess.

The English voiced fricatives: (v, d, z, 3); the Russian voiced fricatives: [в, в', з, з', ж].

The English voiceless fricatives: |f, 9, s, J, h); the Russian voiceless fricatives: (ф, ф', с, с', ш, ш', х, х'].

According to the force of articulation voiced consonants are weak (lenis), voiceless consonants are strong (fort is).

Constrictive sonorantsare also made with an incomplete ob­struction but with a rather wide air passage; so tone prevails over noise.

The English constrictive sonorants: [w, r, I, j]; the Russian constrictive sonorants: |л, л', j].

They are all oral, because in their production the soft palate is raised.

3. Occlusive-constrictiveconsonants or affricatesare noise
consonant sounds produced with a complete obstruction which
is slowly released and the air escapes from the mouth with some
friction. There are only two occlusive-constrictives in English: [tf,
ф] and in Russian [ч', ц]. The English (eft] is voiced (in certain
positions) and weak (lenis); {tf] is voiceless and strong (fortis).

Table 3