1. What consonants are called 'affricates' and why?
2. What is the main difference between occlusive and occlusive-constrictive consonants in the manner of releasing the obstruction?
3. Why are affricates called 'bicentral'?
4. Define [tf ,<&] according to all principles of classification.
5. What mistakes may occur in the pronunciation of [tf ,<&] in word initial position? What are the recommendations for their correction?
6. If a student fully devoices [cfc] in word final position what kind of mistake is it? If he fully voices it what would you recommend to correct the error?
7. How does the difference in voicing influence the length of the preceding vowel?
8. What Russian affricates besides [÷'] do you know?
CLASS B. SONOROUS CONSONANTS (SONORANTS)
Sonorants (sonorous consonants) are sounds pronounced with tone prevailing over noise. The air passage is rather wide when they are produced. Sonorants comprise seven sounds [m. n.o.Kw.j, rl.
According to the manner of articulationsonorants may be occlusive [m, n, rjj when a complete obstruction is formed and constrictive Jl, w, j, r] pronounced with an incomplete obstruction.
Sonorous consonants are subdivided into nasal and
oral, depending on the position of the soft palate which defines the direction of the air stream. When the soft palate is raised the air goes to the mouth, so the sonorants are oral: [1, w, j, r]. If the soft palate is lowered the air escapes through the nose and the sounds are nasal: [m, n, n]- Nasal sonorants resemble oral plosives as a complete obstruction is made in the mouth, but there is no plosion as the soft palate is lowered and the air stream goes freely through the nose. They are usually voiced having no phonemic fortis-lenis or voiced-voiceless oppositions. Oral sonorants [1, w, j, r] fall into the same category, as the presence of noise in them is quite insignificant. Two of them [w, j] are even called semi-vowels, as they glide rapidly from positions of approximately the vowels [u:J and [i] on to a syllabic, sound. So in many respects sonorants resemble vowel sounds. Some of them perform the syllabic function of vowels, most often [n, I], eg written [run], little [lit]]", less commonly [m], eg rhythm [ndm]. In spite of this we study sonorants within the consonant class as their consonantal function is greater than that of vowels, i.e. they have a marginal rather than a central situation in the syllable.
According to the direction of the air stream oral sonorants may be medial and lateral. If the air stream passes along the sides of the tongue lateral consonants are produced: [1]; if the air goes down the centre of the tongue the sounds are medial: [w,j, r].
According to the place of articulationsonorous consonants may be bilabial [m, w] when both lips take part in their formation; forelingual apical alveolar [n, I] pronounced with the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge; post-alveolar [r] pronounced with the tip of the tongue against the back of the alveolar ridge; palatal [j] articulated with the front part of the tongue raised to the hard palate; velar [rj] when the back part of the tongue is against the soft palate.
Voicing.Sonorants are voiced consonants but if the oral sonorants (1, w, j, r] occur after voiceless consonants they are partially devoiced, eg little, apple; twelve, queen; tune, pew; pray, cry.
Length of Nasal Sonorants.Nasal sonorants are longer at the end of the words, before a voiced consonant and a vowel. They sound shorter before voiceless consonants, cf mend — mended — meant, sun — send — sent, long — longer — think.
The symbol [ j is used to show the syllabic function of a sonorant.
Palatalization.English sonorants except [j] are non-paiatal-ized. In case of [1] there is a slightly palatalized allophone ('clear' [1]) which is pronounced with the front secondary focus (the front part of the tongue is raised to the hard palate).
Table 9