QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What is assimilation?
2. What features of the articulation of a consonant may be affected by assimilation?
3. Give three examples illustrating different degrees of assimila-
tion.
4. What is the difference between progressive and regressive assimilations ?
5. What kind of assimilation affects the alveolar articulation of
the [t, d, n] and [1] when they are followed by (0] or [d]?
6. What allophone of the phoneme (I) is used within the word health! How does this allophone differ from the principal one?
7. Ask your fellow-student to transcribe the words white, thorn,
although, breadth, to underline the consonants affected by assimilation and to define its type.
8. What similar assimilative changes do the allophones of the phonemes [t, d, n, 1, s, z] undergo when they are used before [9] or [6]?
9. How would you help your fellow-student to pronounce (nj and [1] preceded by [9] or [d] correctly?
10. What consonant in the sentence "Call the boy" is affected by
regressive assimilation?
11. Read and transcribe the words train, trifle. Say what consonant is assimilated in them and what degree of assimilation it is.
12. Transcribe and pronounce the words three, thread, thrill, throat, throw. Say what allophones of the phoneme [r] are used in them.
13. What allophone of the phoneme [rj is used within the word
through1? Explain the difference between this allophone and the principal one.
14. What allophone of the phoneme [d] is used within the words
drop, drug? Explain the difference between this allophone and the principal one. Say what degree of assimilation it is.
15. What articulatory features of the sonorant [1) within the word
flower are affected by assimilation?
16. Transcribe and pronounce the words train, quarter, twilight
and swallow and say what type of assimilation takes place in
them.
17. Ask a fellow-student to read the following sets of words. Con-
centrating on the difference between the sonorant [wj in word initial position and the [w] preceded by the plosives (s, tj or [kj. Ask him what type of assimilation it is. (1) win — twin , (2) wept — swept, (3) white — quite.
18. Which consonant within the word clock is affected by assimi1-
lation? What degree of assimilation is it?
19. What kind of assimilation do you come across in the cluster
{twj in the word twilight? In what other clusters do we come across the same type of assimilation?
20. Ask a fellow-student to tell you what articulatory features of
the sonorant [wj are affected by assimilation within the words twin, swing, queen. What type of assimilation is it?
21. Can you formulate the principles which determine the pronunciation of the ending -ed, added to regular English verbs to form the Past Indefinite tense? Give examples illustrating all the possible cases.
22. Ask a fellow-student to formulate the principles which deter-
mine the pronunciation of the ending -s, -z, added to the end of the word to make a noun plural or possessive, or to put a verb in the third person singular form of the present tense. This ending is spelled in several different ways: -s, -es, -'s or -s'.
23. Tell your fellow-student to pronounce each of these words
and write the phonetic symbol which represents the sounds
he gave to the ending. Then ask him to explain why the
ending is pronounced as it is:
asked, breaks, caps, believed, appears, animals, lighted, fixed, brooches.
24. What advice regarding voicing and force of articulation
would you give a fellow-student who makes the following
errors in the pronunciation of:
1. had as [haetj instead of [hzed]
2. than as [9aen] instead of [daen]
3. dog as [dok] instead of (dog]
4. languages as ['lzengwrtfis] instead of ['laengwid^iz]
5. obstinate as f'Dpstinit] instead of ['Dostum]
25. Suppose your fellow-student pronounces the word medicine
as ['metsin] and blackboard as ['bl£egbo:d]. Keeping in mind
what you know about voicing and devoicing in English and
Russian tell him what he must do to eliminate the error.
26. Tell your fellow-student to read the words behind, perhaps. Ask him what allophone of |h] is used in them. What is this position of [hj called?
27. Your fellow-student probably makes an error in pronouncing
[b] within the following words: public, better, job. Keeping in mind what you know about voicing in English tell him how to eliminate the error. -
28. Transcribe and read the following sets of words:
(1) day, today, loved; (2) glue, degree, bag. Pay special attention to the plosives [d] and [g] in initial, medial and final positions. Say what you know about voicing.
29. Ask your fellow-student to pronounce the English equiva
lents of the following Russian words and phrases. Define all
subsidiary allophones of consonant phonemes in them. Ask
him to explain how these allophones differ from the princi
pal ones.
1) ïðî÷òèòå ýòî; íàïèøèòå ýòî; äåñÿòîå óïðàæíåíèå;
2) âåñíà, ñèëà, íåáî, ñíåã, ïüåñà, ìåëîäèÿ;
3) ñòàðàòüñÿ, ïëàâàòü.
30. Ask a fellow-student to analyze the words handkerchief and gooseberry from the point of view of assimilations in them and state: (1) the degree of assimilation; (2) the direction of assimilation.
31. How does the nasal sonorant [n] influence the plosive [t] in the word kitten ?
32. What allophones of English stops are used before the nasal sonorants?
33. In what clusters do the plosionless allophones of the stops occur?
34. Say what allophones of the English stops are used before another stop or an affricate? Give examples to illustrate the rule.
35. Listen to your fellow-student reading the following sets of words. Suppose he makes errors in reading them. Tell him what his errors in the pronunciation of the [tl] and (dlj clusters are, and what he must do to correct the error.
kettle, battle, dental, muddle, hardly.
36. What examples can you give to illustrate the conditions due
to which a phoneme has different subsidiary allophones?
37. Why is it important to know and be able to pronounce the
subsidiary allophones of the phonemes?
Chapter IV. VOWELS
PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION
Vowels are normally made with the air stream that meets no closure or narrowing in the mouth, pharyngal and nasal cavities. That is why in the production of vowel sounds there is no noise component characteristic of consonantal sounds.
On the articulatory level the description of vowels notes changes:
1. in the stability of articulation,
2. in the tongue position,
3. in the lip position,
4. in the character of the vowel end.
Besides that vowels differ in respect of their length.
1. Stability of Articulation. All English vowels are divided
into three groups: pure vowels or monophthongs, diphthongs
■ fid diphthongoids.
Monophthongs are vowels the articulation of which is almost unchanging. The quality of such vowels is relatively pure. Most Kussian vowels are monophthongs. The English monophthongs .ire: (i, e, æ, a, d, ý:, è, ë, ç:, ý].
In the pronunciation of diphthongs the organs of speech glide from one vowel position to another within one syllable. The starting point, the nucleus, is strong and distinct. The 4lide which shows the direction of the quality change is very
<ik. In fact diphthongs consist of two clearly perceptible vowel
ments. There are no diphthongs in Russian. The English diphthongs are: [ei, ai, di, au, çè, ia, åý, èý].
In the pronunciation of diphthongoids the articula-intn is slightly changing but the difference between the starting 11'>int and the end is not so distinct as it is in the case of diphthongs. There are two diphthongoids in English: [i:, u:]. The ini-ii.il "o" may serve as an example of a Russian diphthongoid, eg î÷åíü.
2. Tongue Positions. The changes in the position of the
tnngue determine largerly the shape of the mouth and pharyngal
ities. The tongue may move forward and backward, up and • •■■.vn, thus changing the quality of vowel sounds.
è-
(1) When the tongue moves forward and backward various
parts of it may be raised in the direction of the palate.
When the tongue is in the front part of the mouth and the front part of it is raised to the hard palate a front vowel is pronounced. This is the position for the English vowels [i:, e, ã] and the Russian vowels |è] and [ý].
When the tongue is in the front part of the mouth but slightly retracted, and the part of the tongue nearer to centre than to front is raised, a front-retracted vowel is pronounced. Such is the position for the English vowel («J. There are no front-retracted vowels in Russian.
When the front of the tongue is raised towards the back part of the hard palate the vowel is called central. This is the position for the English vowels [à], (ç:], (ý] and the Russian vowels (a) and [û].
When the tongue is in the back part of the mouth and the back of it is raised towards the soft palate a back vowel is pronounced. This is the position for the English vowels [cl, 0,3:, u:j and the Russian vowels [î, ó].
When the tongue is in the back part of the mouth but is slightly advanced and the central part of it is raised towards the front part of the soft palate a back-advanced vowel is pronounced. This is the position for the English vowel [u].
(2) Moving up and down in the mouth various parts of the
tongue may be raised to different height towards the roof of the
mouth.
When the front or the back of the tongue is raised high to
wards the palate the vowel is called close. This is the way the
English vowels [u, i, u, m] and the Russian vowels [è, û, ó] araj
pronounced. [
When the front or the back of the tongue is as low as possible in the mouth open vowels are pronounced. This is the way to pronounce the English vowels [ae, a, o, a] and the Russian vowel [a].
When the highest part of the tongue occupies the position intermediate between the close and the open one m i d vowel» are pronounced. This is the position for the English vowels [e, a, ç:, ý) and the Russian vowels [ý, î].
To mark all significant changes in vowel quality it is not enough to single out these three groups of vowels. For instance, both English vowels [i;] and [i] belong to the group of close vowels, but when the vowel [i] is articulated the front of the tongue is not so high in the mouth as it is in the case of the vowel [i:]. Similar examples may be found in the groups of mid and open vowels. To make the classification more precise it is necessary to distinguish broad and narrow variants of close, mid •md open vowels. The classification of English and Russian vowels looks like this:
| Close vowels | narrow variant | the English [t, it] the Russian [è, û, ó J |
| broad variant | the English [i, u] | |
| Mid vowels | narrow variant | the English [e, ç:, ç] the Russian [ý] |
| broad variant | the English [ë, ý, å] the Russian [o] | |
| ()pen vowels | narrow variant | the English [ç:, ý] |
| broad variant | the English [æ, ø, î, à) the Russian [a] |
3. Lip Position.The shape cff the mouth cavity is also largely
i nendent on the position of the lips. When the lips are neutral
pread the vowels are termed unrounded. Such is the position of the lips for the English vowels [i:, i, e, ae, à, ë, ç:, ý]
the Russian vowels [è, ý, û, à].
When the lips are drawn together so that the opening between them is more or less round the vowel is called round-* il This is the position for the English vowels [d, ý:, è, u:] and Ihr Russian vowels [o, yj. When the Russian rounded vowels are piunounced the lips are somewhat protruded.
4. Character of Vowel End.The quality of all English
lix'iiophthongs in the stressed position is strongly affected by
Íè- following consonant of the same syllable. If a stressed vowel
is followed by a strong voiceless consonant it is cut off by it. In this case the end of the vowel is strong and the vowel is called checked. Such vowels are heard in stressed closed syllables ending in a strong voiceless consonant, eg better, cart.
If a vowel is followed by a weak voiced consonant or by no consonant at all the end of it is very weak. In this case the vowel is called free. Such vowels are heard in closed syllables ending in a voiced consonant or in an open syllable, eg before, money, begger, bead. All Russian vowels tend to be free.
Vowel Length. Vowels are capable of being continued during a longer or a shorter period. All English vowels (with the exception of diphthongs) are generally divided into long and short.
Long vowels are: [i:, a, o:, u:, 3:j.
Short vowels are: (i, e, d, è, ë, ý].
The vowel (ae] is not included in the category of short vowels because of specific length associated with it (see p. 92).
But for the purpose of practical speech training it is not enough to distinguish two degrees of length.
In the similarly accented position all English vowels are fully long when they are final, eg see, bar, sore, fur.
They are almost as long as that when a weak voiced conso nant follows them in the closed syllable, eg seed, arm, form, bird, big, bed, song.
They are considerably shorter before strong voiceless conso narits in closed syllables, eg seat, lark, look, first, bit, set.
Diphthongs vary in length in the same way as long vowels, ñ I play — played — plate, toy — toys — voice, fear — fears — fierce
Variations of length affect mainly the nucleus, not the glide Such variations might be represented in the following way:
play {ple:ij — plays (pleiz] — plate (pleit]
All English vowels are longer when they are strongly stressed, cf in'form — 'uniform.
All English vowels are longer in the nuclear syllable, cf
It is six o'clock now. They are only vsix.
It should be noted that in similar phonetic contexts traditionally long vowels are always longer than traditionally short vow els, cf see — sin, calm — come, cord — cod.
All Russian vowels are equally long in similar phonetic con» texts.
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. According to the stability of articulation there are three groups of vowels. Do you think it is enough to distinguish only two groups: monophthongs and diphthongs?
2. Phoneticians speak of front vowels and back vowels. What characteristic do all the front vowels have in common that is different from the back vowels?
3. What is the difference between front and front-retracted vow-
els?
4. What is the difference between back and back-advanced vowels?
5. What makes central and front vowels different?
6. What characteristic makes close vowels unlike mid and open
ones?
7. What would you tell your fellow-student to prove the necessity of distinguishing narrow and broad variants of close, mid and open vowels?
8. What is the difference between free and checked vowels?
9. How do different phonetic contexts modify vowel length in English?
10. Can the location of word stress and intonation influence vowel length?
11. Are there any historically long and short vowels in English?
MONOPHTHONGS
[i]
|
/ — bit, pill, kitchen
ó — busy, syllable
'• — pretty, before, homeless
>■ — bodies, studies
" - luggage, graduate
Definition, [i] is front-retracted, close (Inodd variant), unrounded, short.
Articulation. The tongue is in the front |).m of the mouth but slightly retracted. The
part of the tongue nearer to centre than to front is raised to a half-close position. The side rims of the tongue make a light contact with the upper teeth. The tongue is lax. The lips are loosely spread. The mouth is slightly in.
This vowel may occur in all positions in the word, eg interval, minute, city, bit, bid, singing.
Allophones.The vowel [æ] is longer in the open syllable when it is free. It is shorter in the closed syllable with a weak voiced consonant at the end. It is checked and much shorter in the stressed closed syllable ending in a strong voiceless consonant, cf river — pig — sit.
In unstressed syllables it is increasingly common to use [ý] instead of [ij in such endings as -ity, -itivewhen another syllable with the vowel [i] follows, eg reality, positive.
In certain words a variation -between [i] and [ý] is heard, eg possible, begin.
The vowel [1] is most likely replaced by [ý] when there is no potential opposition. In such pairs as accept — except, affect — effect, dancers — dances there is a tendency to retain the vowel [ij.
Recommendations.Start with Articulation Exercises II, 4; 111, 11. Take a mirror and check the position of the lips. The mouth should be only slightly open. The lips are spread but they should not cover the teeth. Keep the tip of the tongue against the lower teeth. To make the stressed vowel [i] checked it is advisable to cut it off by the following strong voiceless consonant.
Comparison with the Russian Vowels (è] and [û].The Russian vowel [è] is closer, more advanced and generally longer than the English [i]. The Russian vowel [û) is a closer and a more centralized type than the English vowel [ij, cf sit — cum — ñûò.
Possible Mistakes. 1.Russian students of English can easily replace the English vowel [i] by the Russian [è]. In this case the tip of the tongue should be slightly retracted from the lower teeth. The front of the tongue should be lowered and the vowel must not be too long.
2. If this vowel is replaced by the Russian [û] the tongue
must be slightly advanced. Move the tip of the tongue closer to
the lower teeth. The front, not the central part of the tongue,
should be raised, but not so high as for the Russian vowel [è].
In both cases the tongue and the lips should be relaxed.
3. Sometimes the vowel [i] is not checked and short enough
|
in closed stressed syllables ending in a voiceless consonant. This mistake is especially common in such syllables which would be open in Russian. For instance, the syllabic division of the word bitter in English is bit-ter, according to Russian pronunciation habits it would be bi-tter. To make the English Ji) checked and short enough it is necessary to observe correct syllable division and cut the vowel off by the following consonant.
[ej
|
e — red, get, spend ea — bread, leather î — many, any
Definition, [e] is
front, mid (narrow variant), unrounded, short.
Articulation. The
tongue is in the front
part of the mouth. The
Iront of the tongue is
uiised to the hard pal- Fig. 42.
<ite but not so high as
lor [ij. The side rims of the tongue make a light contact with the upper teeth. The tongue may be more tense than in the case of |i]. The lips are loosely spread. The mouth is slightly open but a bit more than for [i].
This vowel may occur in various positions with the exception <>t the open syllables, eg many, head, left.
Allophones. The vowel [e] is longer in the closed syllable with a weak voiced consonant at the end. It is checked and much shorter in the stressed closed syllable ending in a strong voiceless consonant, cf bed — bet.
Recommendations. Start with Articulation Exercises II, 4; 111, 11. Take a mirror and check the position of the lips. Ther should not cover the teeth. Do not open the mouth too wide. 7o make i he vowel front keep the tip of the tongue against the lower teeth. To make the vowel [e] checked cut it off by the following strong consonant.
Comparison with the Russian vowel [ý]. The Russian
vowel [ý] is a shade more open and retracted type than the English vowel [e].
Possible Mistakes.1. Russian students of English can easily replace the English vowel [e] by the Russian vowel [ý]. In this case raise the front of the tongue higher and slightly advance it.
2. Sometimes the English [c] is not checked and short enough in stressed closed syllables ending in a strong voiceless consonant. This mistake is especially common in such syllables which would be open in Russian. For instance, the syllable division of the word better is bet-ter. According to Russian pronunciation habits it would be. be-tter. To make the English [e] checked and short enough it is necessary to observe correct syllabic division and cut the vowel off by the following consonant.
N "
a — land, bad, sat, hatter
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