Research and development in the computer world moves simultaneously along two paths—in hardware and in software. Work in each area influences the other.
Many hardware systems are reaching natural limitations. Memory chips that could store 512 Mb were in use in the early 21st century, but the connecting circuitry was so narrow that its width had to be measured in atoms. These circuits are susceptible to temperature changes and to stray radiation in the atmosphere, both of which could cause a program to crash (fail) or lose data. Newer microprocessors have so many millions of switches etched into them that the heat they generate has become a serious problem.
For these and other reasons, many researchers feel that the future of computer hardware might not be in further miniaturization, but in radical new architectures, or computer designs. For example, almost all of today's computers process information serially, one element at a time. Massively parallel computers—consisting of hundreds of small, simple, but structurally linked microchips—break tasks into their smallest units and assign each unit to a separate processor. With many processors simultaneously working on a given task, the problem can be solved much more quickly.
A major technology breakthrough was made in 2003 by Sun Microsystems, Inc. While the integrated circuit has enabled millions of transistors to be combined in one manufacturing process on a silicon chip, Sun has taken the next step to wafer-scale integration. Rather than producing hundreds of microprocessors on each silicon wafer, cutting them into separate chips, and attaching them to a circuit board, Sun figured out how to manufacture different chips edge-to-edge on a single wafer. When introduced into full-scale manufacturing, this process promises to eliminate circuit boards, speed up data transfer between different elements by a hundredfold, and substantially reduce the size of computer hardware.
Two exotic computer research directions involve the use of biological genetic material and the principles of quantum mechanics.
Several hundred thousand computer-controlled robots currently work on industrial assembly lines in Japan and the United States. They consist of four major elements: sensors (to determine position or environment), effectors (tools to carry out an action), control systems (a digital computer and feedback sensors), and a power system. Robots also have been used in scientific explorations too dangerous for humans to perform, such as descending into active volcanoes, gathering data on other planets, and exploring nuclear sites in which radiation leakage has occurred. As computers become more efficient and artificial intelligence programs become more sophisticated, robots will be able to perform more difficult and more humanlike tasks.
As exciting as all the hardware developments are, they are nevertheless dependent on well-written software. Software controls the hardware and forms an interface between the computer and the user. Software is becoming increasingly user-friendly (easy to use by nonprofessional computer users) and intelligent (able to adapt to a specific user's personal habits). A few word-processing programs learn their user's writing style and offer suggestions; some game programs learn by experience and become more difficult opponents the more they are played. Future programs promise to adapt themselves to their user's personality and work habits so that the term personal computing will take on an entirely new meaning.
Programming is itself becoming more advanced. While some types of programming require even greater expertise, more and more people with little or no traditional computer programming experience can do other forms of programming. Object-oriented programming technology, in conjunction with graphical user interfaces, will enable future users to control all aspects of the computer's hardware and software simply by moving and manipulating graphical icons displayed on the screen.
Another approach to programming is called evolutionary computation for its use of computer code that automatically produces and evaluates successive “generations” of a program. Short segments of computer code, called algorithms, are seeded into an artificial environment where they compete. At regular intervals, the algorithms deemed best according to user-supplied criteria are harvested, possibly “mutated,” and “bred.” Over the course of thousands, or even millions, of computer generations, highly efficient computer programs have been produced.
2. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты.
| естественный предел | ||
| соединяющие цепи | ||
| измеряться в атомах | ||
| восприимчивы к температурным изменениям и паразитному излучению | ||
| обрабатывать информацию сериями | ||
| разбивать задачу на мелкие части | ||
| назначать, направлять | ||
| технологический прорыв | ||
| интегрированная цепь | ||
| интеграция в масштабе одной платы | ||
| вычислила, как располагать чипы на единственной плате | ||
| серийное производство | ||
| монтажная плата | ||
| стократно | ||
| конвейер | ||
| датчик обратной связи | ||
| сеть питания | ||
| утечка радиации | ||
| искусственный интеллект | ||
| графические пиктограммы | ||
| развивать успешную версию программы | ||
| помещать в искусственную среду | ||
| алгоритмы, наиболее соответствующие заданным пользователем критериям, заимствуются, видоизменяются и развиваются. |
2. Выберите правильный ответ.
1. The future of computer hardware is
A in using smaller elements.
B in radical changing of designs.
C in improvement traditional architectures.
D unpredictable.
2. Sun Microsystems Inc
A suggested a new technology.
B was organized in 2003.
C combines transistors in one manufacturing process.
D produces hundreds of microprocessors on each silicon wafer.
3. Robots
A can be used to perform any task.
B can be sent alone to another planet.
C are more intelligent than people.
D are used on assembly lines in Japan and the USA only.
4. Programming will
A be much more difficult to understand.
B require a lot of experience.
C be developed using different approaches.
D not be as efficient as it is today.
5. Which of the following statements is not true?
A Hardware can’t be developed in a traditional way.
B Software will be adapted to user’s personality.
C Graphical user interface is becoming a very important tool.
D Software and hardware researches are not connected.
3. Письменно переведите по вариантам первую или вторую (со слов Several hundred thousand computer) часть текста.