Just what are crystals? A crystal is an organized grouping of atoms, or molecules. Each crystal has different properties and shapes. For example, sugar crystals are oblong and slanted at the ends; salt crystals are cubic. Some elements can make more than one crystalline form. Carbon, as graphite, will conduct electricity, act as a lubricant between moving parts, be used as a writing tool (a pencil) and strengthen of steel. As diamond, carbon is used as an industrial cutting tool and as a gemstone in jewelry.
Crystals can be used in many ways. Diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds have been the showiest use of crystals for thousands of years. They were highly valued due to their beauty and relative small amounts that exist in nature. In recent years chemists have been working on methods of creating some of these crystals in the laboratory with a lot of success.
Each different crystal vibrates at a specific frequency when an electric current is passed through it. The original radios were created using vibrating crystals to create the frequency to transmit signals. As radio technology improved, radio transmitters had several different crystals to allow transmission on different frequencies. Modern radios have large number of different frequencies used by radio stations.
Vibrating crystals can be used for time keeping. A quartz clock uses the vibration of a quartz crystal to measure time. When the crystal has an electric current passed through it, the crystal will vibrate at 60 hertz (60 times per second).
Дайте відповіді на запитання.
1. What shape has a salt crystal?
а) star; b) cubic; b) pyramid.
2. Some crystaline form of carbon is used as a ___.
а) lubricant between moving parts; b) rocket fuel; в) food additive.
3. In the radio, vibrating crystals are used ___.
а) to switch between channels; b) to transmit signals; в) to receive signals.
23.4. Граматика. Функції дієслів to be, to have
Форми дієслова to be
| Present | Past | Future | Participle II |
| am, is, are | was, were | will be | been |
| Значення | Приклад | |
| Основне дієслово (бути) | I am in the office now. | |
| Як дієслово зв’язку | He is a student. They were busy last week. | |
| Допоміжне дієслово для групи Сontinuous | I am waiting for Nick. He is writing a letter. | |
| Допоміжне дієслово для утворення пасивного стану | He was asked a difficult question. He has been invited to the party. | |
| Модальне дієслово (повинен), якщо є частка to після нього | We are to meet at the station at 7 o’clock. |
Форми дієслова to have
| Present | Past | Future | Participle II |
| have, has | had | will have | had |
| Значення | Приклад | |
| Основне дієслово (мати) (у цьому значенні може мати форму have got) | I have a good watch. I have got a large family. | |
| Допоміжне дієслово для групи Perfect. | He has just returned from a business trip. | |
| Стійкі словосполучення. | to have dinner, to have a quarrel, to have a walk, to have a shower | |
| Модальне дієслово (повинен), якщо є частка to після нього. | The door was closed and they had to wait at the stairs. |
G Запам’ятайте прислів’я з дієсловом to be!
| All is well that ends well. Friend is never known till needed. Little thieves are hanged, but great ones escape. If there were no clouds, we should not enjoy the sun. If things were to be done twice all would be wise. |
G Запам’ятайте прислів’я з дієсловом to have!
| Walls have ears. We know not what is good until we have lost it. If my aunt had been a man, she’d have been my uncle. |
Вправа 2. Перекладіть речення, звертаючи увагу на переклад дієслів to be, to have. Визначте функцію цих дієслів у реченнях: a) основне дієслово; b) допоміжне дієслово; c) модальне дієслово.
1. We have just learned the structure of a diesel engine. 2. She was writing a letter when she realized that she was not alone in the room any more. 3. You have to check the calculations once more before giving them to your teacher. 4. He was asked a difficult question at the exam. 5. Sorry, I didn’t come to the meeting because I had much work in the laboratory. 6. Students of our faculty were awarded a prize for their scientific experiments. 7. The conference had been finished by 5 o’clock and I had time to go to the library. 8. He is to come to me tomorrow, he promised.
Вправа 3. Перекладіть речення англійською мовою, звертаючи увагу на переклад дієслів to be, to have.
1. В мене є гарна ідея, де відзначити твій день народження. 2. Щоб вступити до університету, учні мають скласти тести. 3. Декан розповів на зустрічі, що Максим був найкращим студентом факультету. 4. Я щойно говорив із завідувачем лабораторії. Тепер ми маємо дозвіл на проведення цього експерименту. 5. Я впевнений, що вона була вдома, коли я приходив. 6. Згідно з білетами ми маємо вирушити до Німеччини завтра вранці. 7. Я забув вдома папку з документами, і мені довелося повертатися. 8. Мені нічого тобі сказати. Я сам ще не бачив результатів іспиту. 9. Після закінчення університету я буду першокласним спеціалістом в цій галузі.
23.5. Домашнє завдання
Вправа 4. Складіть по одному реченню з кожною формою дієслів to be і to have так, як показано у прикладах в таблицях п. 23.4.
Вправа 5. Знайдіть відповідний переклад речень.
| There are very many large cities in the USA. | a | У Вашингтоні багато історичних місць. | |
| Washington, the capital of the United States of America, is situated on the Potomac River. | b | Столиця багато в чому зобов’язана першому Президенту США Джорджу Вашингтону. | |
| In comparison with such ancient historical cities as, say, Rome, London, Moscow or Paris, Washington is quite young. | c | Саме Джордж Вашингтон обрав місце для столиці та в 1790 році заклав перший камінь будівлі Капітолію, де засідає Конгрес. | |
| The capital owes much to the first President of the USA – George Washington. | d | Вашингтон, столиця США, знаходиться на річці Потомак. | |
| It was George Washington who chose the place for the capital and laid in 1790 the cornerstone of the Capitol where Congress sits. | e | Порівняно з такими старовинними містами, як Рим, Лондон, Москва або Париж, Вашингтон – достатньо молоде місто. | |
| Washington has many historical places. | f | У Вашингтоні немає хмарочосів, тому що жодна будівля не повинна бути вищою за Капітолій. | |
| The largest and tallest among the buildings is the Capitol with its great House of Representatives and the Senate chamber. | g | У США багато великих міст. | |
| There are no skyscrapers in Washington because no other building must be taller than the Capitol. | h | Найбільша та найвища серед будівель – це Капітолій, де містяться Сенат та Палата Представників. |
Вправа 6. Складіть розповідь про Вашингтон з використанням активних слів та виразів.
Lesson 24. Education in the USA
24.1. Розмовна тема. Освіта у Сполучених Штатах Америки
Прочитайте текст і знайдіть підкреслені слова у словнику.
The American system of school education differs from the systems in other countries. The United States does not have a national system of education. Each state determines its individual standards and requirements. Though there are enough basic similarities in structure among the various schools and systems.
Elementary education begins at the age of six or seven, when a child goes to the first grade (form). The program of studies in the elementary school includes English, Arithmetic, Geography, History of the USA, Natural sciences and, besides, Physical Training, Singing, Drawing, wood or metal work, etc. Sometimes they learn a foreign language and general history. At the age of fourteen or sixteen schoolchildren leave the elementary school and may continue their education at one of the secondary schools or high schools, as they call them, where they study up to 18. There are almost always required (compulsory) subjects and sometimes students at high school can choose some optional courses. Besides giving general education some high schools teach subjects useful to those who hope to find jobs in industry and agriculture or who want to enter colleges or universities.
After graduating from secondary schools a growing number of Americans go on to higher education. There are more than 3,000 institutions of higher education in the United States with the number of students ranging from fewer than a hundred to 40,000. Young people who want to get higher education must meet some requirements. No student is admitted to a college or university without having completed a four-year course in high school. It means that a student who wants to study at a university or college must begin by doing good work in high school. If his grades in high school are satisfactory, he is admitted to a university or college. Besides, standardized examinations play a decisive role in the admission to most colleges and universities. About 53% of pupils who complete their high school course go on to a college or university.
Institutions of higher learning include a great variety of junior and community colleges, technical and professional schools, which provide two-year programs in such fields as engineering, business, or electronics; and colleges and universities (the former often being a part of the latter), which usually offer four- or five-year programs leading to Bachelor of Arts (BA) or Bachelor of Science (BSc) degree, as well as advanced courses leading to a Master’s or Doctor’s degree. Any of these institutions, in any category, may be either public or private, depending on the source of its funding.
It is common for students to leave home to study, and only about 15 % of all university students live at home while they study. Students may live either in the university campus in one of the dormitories or in private homes in the city in which the University is located.
Вправа 1. Дайте відповіді на запитання.
1. What is the difference between the system of education in the USA and the systems in other countries? 2. What are the stages of education in the USA? 3. How long do American pupils study at school? 4. How many institutions of higher education are there in the USA? 5. How many years do American students study to get a Bachelor’s degree? 6. Where do American students usually live while studying at a university or a college?
24.2. Письмові завдання
Вправа 2. Перекладіть речення про освіту у США англійською мовою.
Система освіти в США відрізняється від систем освіти в інших країнах, бо не має загальнонаціональної освітянської програми. У віці 6-7 років діти вступають до першого класу початкової школи, після якої у віці 14-16 років, вони переходять до середньої школи. Програма навчання включає як обов’язкові предмети, так і предмети за вибором. Навчання в державних школах безкоштовне. За навчання в приватних школах та коледжах батьки мають платити. Жоден студент не може бути прийнятий у вищій навчальний заклад без закінчення повного курсу середньої школи. Після 4–5 років навчання в університеті студенти отримують ступінь «бакалавр». Більшість студентів протягом навчання проживають в гуртожитках, або приватних квартирах на території університету.
24.3. Читання