Australian English - раздел Философия, Теоретические материалы По лексикологии современного Английского языка The Australian Commonwealth – The British Dominion – Was Founded In 1901; Bef...
The Australian Commonwealth – the British dominion – was founded in 1901; before that the states were independent colonies, ruled separately by the British Government.
In the 20th century the population of Australia was a special nation differing from the British, and it was united by the common language, territory, economic relations and culture. On the Australian continent, the word Australian does not denote an aborigene, but an offspring of the first English settlers, so by speaking about Australian nation, Australian literature and language, we mean the nation, literature and language of the white population.
Australian English has peculiarities in pronunciation, intonation, spelling and grammar. But the greatest difference is observed in lexis.
In Australia the first settlers (1788) found themselves in quite new natural surrounding. The new objects and concepts required creating new names. In this two ways were used: making up words of English morphemes and exploiting English means of word-formation, and borrowing.
In Australian English some words keep the meanings which in England became obsolete and even disappeared, e.g. the word stock in the meaning «скот» in England is used only in the combination live-stock, but in Australia this meaning is kept in the word itself, in compounds and derivatives: stockman – пастух,stock yard – скотопригонный двор,stock-house – скотный двор, stock-holder – скотовод, stock-run - выгон,stock-station – скотоводческая ферма,stock-keeper – владелец фермы,to stock-keep – заниматься скотоводством,to stock up – разводить скот, the word paddock in England has the meaning небольшой выгон, лужайка, but in Australia – огороженный земельный надел любого размера, to paddock – поместить за ограду (о скоте), to paddockland – огородить землю,heifer-paddock – женская школа.
The word station (скотоводческая ферма)acquires a broader usage in Australia. This word is used in a great number of collocations: heifer-station – ферма, на которой выращивается молодняк, outside station – ферма, расположенная во внутренних районах страны, station black - туземец, station mark – клеймо, station jack – мясной пудинг, etc.
The word pastoralist in great Britain has the meaning фермер-овцевод, in Australia – человек, занятый производством любых продуктов сельского хозяйства, township in England – церковный приход, in Australia – город; wattle in England - прут, плетень, сделанный из прутьев, in Australia – акация (the first settlers built their homes from branches of Australian wattle and clay; so the wattle itself was named by this word, and homes of this kind – wattle-and-dub huts or simply wattles.
The usage of the same word-forming means in England and Australia often leads to appearing of differences in lexis, which can be possibly explained by the long distance between the countries.
The analysis of the following extract proves this fact.
We “embossed”. This hideous word was the invention of some military genius and meant simply that we got aboard trucks. Having “embussed” we travelled the few miles to Liverpool railway station. There we “debussed” and “entrained”. The train then chugged erratically down to Darling Harbour, where we “detrained” and “embarked”. Everyone got aboard and no spies had observed us embussing or debussing, entraining or detraining, nor even embarking. (From: R.Brandon, The Naked Island).
The verbs embus, debus, entrain, and detrain are not registered in dictionaries.
To the same kind of words the following lexemes can be referred: greyness – серый цвет, sundowner – бродяга (человек, который на заходе солнца ищет пищи и крова на ночь); two-up – игра двумя монетами – наподобие игры в орлянку, milk-bar – молочное кафе, push – толпа, peopleless – безлюдный, to unsit – лишать места, sundown - бродяжничать (back-formation from sundowner ), finalize – завершать, заканчивать, and its derivative finalization.
The noun Australia was the basis for forming such derivatives and word-combinations as: australism – австрализм, australiana - австралиана, un-Australian – чуждый Австралии, pan-Australian - проавстралийский, Aussie (slang) – австралиец (formed from the stem Australian with the help of the suffix –ie), Westralian – житель Западной Австралии (blending of the nouns West Australian), australite – австралит (meteorite found in the states of Victoria, South and West Australia), australize – натурализоваться в Австралии, Australian grip – австралийское, т.е. сильное, дружеское рукопожатие, Australian policy – политика запрещения иммиграции из стран Азии.
In colloquial speech and especially slang Australians use many shortenings: abo – aborigine - туземец, bacca – tobacco, exes – expences, moles – moleskin trousers – брюки из молескина, Nor-Wester – северо-западный ветер, this after – this afternoon, my troubs – my troubles, pub – public, man-o’-war – man of war, god-o’mighty – god-almighty, etc.
Very often Australians use suffixes –y and –ie for word-formation, and they do not give diminutiveness to the words as it happens in England, but make the words sound a bit rough and friendly: roughy (rough) - грубиян, shrewdy (shrewd) – проницательный человек. The suffix can join the cut stem of the word: possie – position, adjie – adjutant, cryssie – chrysanthemum; to the stem of the first element of of a compound: milky – milkman, footie – football; to the stem of the word which is part of a word-combination: bussy – bus driver, trammy – tram conductor, rocky – rock wallaby – каменный кенгуру.
Differences of Australian English in the sphere of literary layer of vocabulary can be observed in phraseology as well: to do a perish - умирать, to do a get – быстро удалиться, to whip the cat – потерянного не воротишь (cf. with English to cry over spilt milk), to be within cooee, to keep in touch by cooeeing – быть, держаться в пределах слышимости (the word cooee in the meaning окликать, аукать was borrowed from the language of the aborigines of the country), to keep out of harm’s way – держаться от греха подальше, to get bushed - заблудиться, bush-telegraph – ложный слух, (from the vocabulary of bushrangers, where this word had the meaning передача сведений о движении полицейских отрядов через сообщников), to pay on tick – платить в рассрочку.
The number of borrowings from other languages is not large. These are mainly borrowings from aborigine languages. According to the census of 1933 geographical names of Australia include about 4700 words of native population, which makes one third of the whole number of geographical names. The melody and unusual sounding of the words inspired D.D.Lang to create a poem which consists of the geographical names only :
I like the native names as Paratta
And Illawarra, and Woolloomooloo,
Nandowra, Woogarora, Bulkomatta,
Tenah, Toongabbie, Mittagong, Meroo...
(From: S.J.Baker, The Australian Language, Sydney, 1945, p.198).
At present the words of native origin are broadly used for the names of hotels, ships, pet names, etc.
As for the names of large settlements, the Australians did not show much inventiveness: there are two Cardiffs, two Virginias, Liverpool, Toronto and others in Australia.
Other borrowings from the aborigine languages mainly refer to the names of objects and events of everyday life: coolamon – сосуд для хранения влды, boomerang - бумеранг, woomera – приспособление для метания копья, walpa – род лодки, waddy - дубинка, tabee – ритуальная песнь туземцев, corroboree – религиозные праздничные пляски, (in colloquial language this word also means шум, производимый группой людей), humpy, uloo - хижина, miah (mia-mia) - шалаш, lava-lava – набедренная повязка, gina-gina – женская одежда, gin, lubra – туземная женщина или девушка, cooboo - ребенок, kangaroo - кенгуру, dingo – динго (дикая австралийская собака), malee – австралийская акация, mulga – разновидность эвкалипта, etc.
The speech of Australians was enriched by the words which lost the native colour: cooee – окликать, аукать, willy-willy - смерч, jabber - язык (to jabber - говорить), billy – котелок для кипячения воды, bogie - купаться, dillybag – мешок, сплетенный из травы и овечьей шерсти, gibber - камень (mainly it is used in collocations: gibber plains, gibber country), myall – дикий, неприрученный, etc.
The 20th century saw the tendency of broadening the number of borrowings from aborigine languages. The appearing of the genre of historical novel devoted to to the years of gold rushes and to the severe life of first settlers naturally arose interest to the native people of the country, and that was the reason of enriching litatrary language of Australian English by the native words.
Enlarging the number of borrowings was facilitated by the fact that till recently in Australia there was no system of terminology reflecting flora and fauna of the continent which comprises thousands of endemic plants and animals. In 1955 the dictionary Australian Aboriginal Words and Place Names, which included about three thousand of word entries, was published in Melbourne. There is a very interesting idea in the Introduction: “Australian people are now showing an inclination to favour the use of aboriginal names for their homes, the idea could perhaps be extended to other things or places for which an Australian name would be desirable, with advantage to the furthering of the growth of a distinct national feeling.” (From: S.J.Endacott, Australian Aboriginal Words and Place Names, Melbourne, 1955, Foreword).
V M Shirokikh L P Koudrevatykh... THE STUDY OF MODERN ENGLISH LEXICOLOGY Theoretical materials for seminars...
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Australian English
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Lexicology as a Science
The term consists of Greek morphemes:
lexis logos
(word, phrase) (learning).
Lexicology studies words and phrases, i.e. vocabulary of a language.
Vocabulary
Two Approaches to Language Study
Synchronic (syn = together, chronos = time).
The synchronic approach is concerned with the vocabulary of a language at a given period of time.
Diachronic (dia = thro
The Real Difficulty Is in the Vocabulary
The fact that the languages commonly learnt by Europeans belong mostly to the same Aryan stock, and have besides a large vocabulary in common of borrowed Latin, French, and greek words, is apt to b
Some Basic Assumptions
The most characteristic feature of English is its mixed character. While it is wrong to speak of the mixed character of the language as a whole, the com-posite nature of the English vocabulary cann
Words of Native Origin
Words of native origin consist for the most part of very ancient elements - Indo-European, Germanic and West Germanic cognates. The bulk of the Old English word-stock has been preserved, although s
Borrowings in the English Language
In its 15 century long history the English language has come in long and close contact with several other languages, mainly Latin, French and Old Norse (or Scandinavian). The great influx of borrow
Degree of Assimilation
Completely assimilated words do not differ from the native ones in pronunciation, spelling, frequency, semantic structure and sphere of application. It is difficult to distinguish them from
Morphemes. Their Structural and Semantic Classifications
A great many words have a composite nature and are made up of smaller units each having sound form and meaning. These are called morphemes, e.g. teach-er, help-less-ness, sports-man.
Like
Historic Changeability of Word-Structure
Language is never stable: it undergoes changes on all its levels: phonetic, morphological, lexical, phraseological, etc.
As for some morphemes, in the course of time they may become fused
Prefixation
Prefixation is the formation of words with the help of prefixes. There are about 51 prefixes in the system of Modern English word-formation.
Prefixes may be classified into several groups
Suffixation
Suffixation is the formation of words with the help of suffixes.
Diachronic Approach
Native suffixes:-ness, -ish, -dom, -hood, -ing, etc.
Foreign suffixes: -ation,
Structure of Compound Words: Their Inseparability
Compounds are structurally and phonetically inseparable. Structurally compounds are characterized by the specific order and arrangement of stems. The order in which the two stems are
Meaning of Compound Words. Motivation in Compounds
Semantically the majority of compounds are motivated units: their meaning is derived from the combined lexical meanings of their components. The semantic centre of the compound is the lexic
Classification of Compounds
According to the degree of semantic independence of stems; according to the part of speech; according to the means of connection of stems; according to the types of stems.
According to
Definition. Treatment of Conversion
Conversion (to convert - превращать) - is highly productive in replenishing the English word-stock with new words. The term «conversion» refers to numerous cases of phonetic identity of two words
Semantic Relations between Conversion Pairs
As one of the two words within a conversion pair is semantically derived from the other, it is of great theoretical and practical importance to determine the semantic relations between the words re
Traditional and Occasional Conversion
Modern English vocabulary is exceedingly rich in conversion pairs. Conversion in Modern English is extremely productive: new conversion pairs appear in fiction, newspaper articles and in oral com
Graphical Shortening
These are signs representing words and wordgroups of high frequency of occurrence in written speech: scientific books, articles, advertisements, letters, etc.
Letters:
St - Stree
Lexical Shortening
Lexical Abbreviation
It is natural that in the course of time and language development some graphical abbreviations should penetrate into the sphere of oral speech and turn into lexical ab
Historical Approaches to the Study of Word Meaning
Ancient Greece – Nature vs. Convention
In ancient Greece and Rome the study of language was a part of philosophy. The ancient Greeks first tackled the study of lan
Referential Theory of Meaning
The major thesis of this theory was that the word meaning is the actual referent. The meaning of a tree is the actual referent that occurs or the object in the world. This approach encounter
Conceptual Theory of Meaning - De Saussure
Concepts are not individual occurrences but a whole set of occurrences. The concept is in our mind and it is not an image. First we conceptualise. Then we need to lexicalise the concept, the
Grammatical Meaning
The branch of lexicology that is devoted to the study of meaning is known as semasiology.
Meaning is one of the most difficult problems in the theory of language and it has been the topic
Lexical Meaning
Besides grammatical meaning words have lexical meaning. The words go, goes, went, going, gone, having different grammatical meanings, have one and the same semantic component denoting the pr
Denotational and Connotational Meaning
The lexical meaning is not homogeneous either, it consists of:
- denotational meaning (semes) - component of the lexical meaning that makes communication possible; the basis of
Division of Vocabulary into Different Layers
Stylistically words can be subdivided into formal, neutral and informal layers. The formal and informal layers contain a number of subgroups. The main aspect of the formal layer is its booki
Formal Vocabulary
Literary words are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech:
1. common literary words (learned words) - mostly polysemantic, used in books of elevated style and in books o
Informal Vocabulary
The informal part is traditionally subdivided into literary colloquial (cultivated speech), familiar colloquial, low colloquial (illiterate speech). Literary colloquial is used by educated
Change of Meaning as a Linguistic Phenomenon
In the course of the historical development of a language, the meaning of words change, e.g.: glad had the meaning of bright in OE; husband had the meaning of master of the house-hold
Causes of Semantic Change
There are two groups of causes of semantic change: extralinguistic (historical) and linguistic factors.
Extralinguistic causes
In nation's social life,
Nature of Semantic Change: Metaphor and Metonymy
To answer the question «how new meanings develop» we must investigate the inner mechanism of this process. A necessary condition of any semantic change, no matter what the cause, is some connecti
Results of Change of Meaning
Results of semantic change can be generally seen in the changes of the denotational meaning of the word - restriction and extention of meaning, or in the change of its connotational component - ame
Grammatical and Lexical Ambiguity
Ambiguity
A word is ambiguous if it has more than one sense or more than two synonyms that are not synonyms to each other. A sentence is ambiguous if it has two or more parap
Monosemantic and Polysemantic Words
In the course of historic development of the English language words have undergone many changes. When we analyse the semantic structure of the words we notice that they are not units of a single me
Primary and Secondary Meanings
By diachronic approach we distinguish the primary meaning: table - a flat slab of stone and wood (плита), and secondary meanings (all the other meanings): стол, пища, таблица
Basic and Minor Meanings
Synchronically we understand polysemy as the coexistence of different meanings of the same word at a certain historical period of the development of the English language. Here the problems a
Classification of Synonyms
Acad. V.V. Vinogradov established the following classification of synonyms: ideographic, stylistic, ideographic-stylistic, contextual, absolute (total).
Ideographic synonyms a
Types of Connotations
A more modern and effective approach to the classification of synonyms may be based on the definition describing synonyms as words differing in connotations:
- connotation of degree or
Superstitious Taboos
A special source of synonymy is the so-called euphemism (eu - well, phemi -1 speak).
Euphemism is a way of speaking by which an unpleasant, improper _or offensive thing is designated by
Social Taboos
Euphemism is a frequent occurrence in Modem English, it is a wider phenomenon than a taboo was, and it has spread to many spheres of life. Such euphemisms can be called social taboos.
The Definition of Antonymy
Antonymy is a lexical opposition of meaning. The words are different in form and opposite in meaning. It is also a relative phenomenon (same lexical field identical in style) and it has cont
Types of Antonymy
Complementary (contradictory/binary) antonymy. Complementary antonyms come in pairs that exhaust all the possibilities within a mixed lexical filed. One denies the other and together they m
Kinds of Antonyms
Absolute/root vs. Derivational antonyms..Absolute (root) antonyms such as: hot - cold, short - long are lexically words. The derivational antonyms are
formed by addin
The Definition of Neologism
The vocabulary does not remain the same, but changes constantly. New notions come into being, requiring new words to name them. On the other hand, some notions and things become outdated and the wo
Kinds of Neologisms
The intense development of science and industry, changes in economy, social and political life introduced a great number of new words, denoting new notions in these fields. Prof. I.R.Galperin calle
Ways of Word-Forming of Neologisms
The bulk of neologisms in English are formed according to the productive models of word-building in the given period and with the help of word-stock of the language. So, the greater part of literar
Archaisms
The vocabulary of a language never remains stable. There are constant changes in the semantic structure of any language. Words appear, undergo a number of phonetic and semantic changes and finally
Some Basic Features of Word-Groups
Words put together to form lexical units make phrases or word-groups. One must recall that lexicology deals with words, word-forming morphemes and word-groups.
The degree of structural and
Structure of Word-Groups
Structurally word-groups can be considered in different ways. Word-groups may be described as for the order and arrangement of the component-members. E.g., the word-group to read a book can
Motivation in Word-Groups
Word-groups like words may be also analysed from the point of view of their motivation. Word-groups may be called as lexically motivated if the combined lexical meaning of the group is deducible
Criteria of Stability and Lack of Motivation
Phraseological units are habitually defined as non-motivated word-groups that cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as ready-made units; the other essential feature of phrase
General Classification of Phraseological Units
Taking into consideration mainly the degree of idiomaticity phraseological units may be classified into three big groups. This classification was first suggested by Acad. V. V. Vinogradov. These g
Structural Classification
Phraseological units may be defined as specific word-groups functioning as word-equivalents; they are equivalent to definite classes of words. The part-of-speech meaning of phraseological units is
Genetic (Etymological) Classification
Phraseological units are created from free word-groups. But in the course of time some words - constituents of phraseological units may drop out of the language; the situation in which the phraseol
Proverbs
Besides phraseological units - word-equivalents, the language has set-phrases which are equivalents of sentences. They are proverbs, sayings, aphorisms,
e.g.:custom is the second nature -
STANDARD ENGLISH. NATIONAL VARIANTS AND LOCAL DIALECTS
Standard English is the official language of Great Britain used in its literary form. Regional varieties possessing a literary form are called national variants. Local dialects are
AMERICAN ENGLISH
The variety of English spoken in the USA has received the name of American English. The term variant or variety appears most appropriate for several reasons. American English cannot be calle
Canadian English
English appeared in Canada in the 17th cent. with the British colonizers, who met there not only the native people - Red Indians and Eskimos, but with the French colonizers as well, who
New Zealand English
New Zealand is one of the farthest former dominions of Great Britain, and from the first days of its development is economically closely connected with Australia. Their relations found reflection i
Problems in Lexicography
1. Selection of head words - selection of the items included in the dictionary is done according to the type and size (general, pocket dictionary).
2. Arrangement of lexical entrie
H.Sweet about Dictionaries
Study of the Vocabulary
It will, perhaps, be most convenient to begin with that aspect of the dictionary which makes it the reverse of the grammar. From this p
Procedures of Linguistic Investigation
Acquaintance with the currently used procedures of linguistic investigation is of considerable importance both for language learners and for prospective teachers as it gives them the possibility
Contrastive Analysis
Contrastive linguistics attempts to find out similarities and differences in languages. Detailed comparison of the structure of a native and a target language is called contrastive analy
Statistical Analysis
Statistical analysis has considerable importance not only because of its precision but also because of its relevance to certain problems of communication engineering and information theory.
Distributional Analysis
Distributional analysis in its various forms is widely used nowadays by lexicologists. By distribution we understand the occurrence of a lexical unit relative to other lexical units of the same
CONCISE DICTIONARY OF LINGUISTIC TERMS
Краткий словарь-справочник лингвистических терминов
Аббревиатура (abbreviation)- слово, образованное из названий начальных букв или из начальных звуков слов, входящих в и
CONTENTS
Introduction: the object of lexicology..........................................
Etymological survey of the English language..............................
I. Word structure and wo
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