Òåîðåòè÷åñêèå ìàòåðèàëû Ïî ëåêñèêîëîãèè ñîâðåìåííîãî Àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà
V.M.Shirokikh, L.P.Koudrevatykh
THE STUDY OF MODERN ENGLISH LEXICOLOGY
Theoretical materials for seminars
Â.Ì. Øèðîêèõ, Ë.Ï. Êóäðåâàòûõ
Òåîðåòè÷åñêèå ìàòåðèàëû
Ïî ëåêñèêîëîãèè ñîâðåìåííîãî
Àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà
Ãëàçîâ 2004
Øèðîêèõ Â.Ì., Êóäðåâàòûõ Ë.Ï. Òåîðåòè÷åñêèå ìàòåðèàëû ïî ëåêñèêîëîãèè ñîâðåìåííîãî àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà. -Ãëàçîâ, 2004.
Ðåöåíçåíò: äîöåíò êàô. ðîì.-ãåðì, ôèëîëîãèè Â.Í. Èâîíèíà (ÃÃÏÈ)
Ó÷åáíîå ïîñîáèå ïî êóðñó ëåêñèêîëîãèè ñîâðåìåííîãî àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà ïðåäíàçíà÷åíî äëÿ ñòóäåíòîâ ñòàðøèõ êóðñîâ ôàêóëüòåòà èíîñòðàííûõ ÿçûêîâ ïåäàãîãè÷åñêîãî âóçà. Îíî ìîæåò áûòü èñïîëüçîâàíî â ïðîöåññå ïîäãîòîâêè ê ñåìèíàðñêèì çàíÿòèÿì, ïðè íàïèñàíèè êóðñîâûõ è äèïëîìíûõ ðàáîò ïî ëèíãâèñòèêå.
© Â.Ì. Øèðîêèõ, 2004 © Ë.Ï. Êóäðåâàòûõ, 2004
INTRODUCTION
THE OBJECT OF LEXICOLOGY
1. Lexicology as a science.
2. Two approaches to language study.
3. Connection of lexicology with other sciences.
4. Theoretical and practical value of lexicology.
lexis logos
(word, phrase) (learning).
Lexicology studies words and phrases, i.e. vocabulary of a language.
The synchronic approach is concerned with the vocabulary of a language at a given period of time.
Diachronic (dia = through, chronos = time).
The diachronic approach deals with the changes and the development of the vocabulary in the course of time.
Connection of Lexicology with Other Sciences
Lexicology is connected with other sciences which also study words, though, from different sides:
general linguistics ,
the history of the language (etymology of words) ,
phonetics (acoustic level of the words) ,
grammar (morphemes as parts of words and grammatical rules of their combining) ,
stylistics (words as stylistic devices).
Theoretical and Practical Value of Lexicology
The theoretical value consists in stimulating a systematic approach to the facts of vocabulary; in linguistic training of philologists and teachers.
The practical value of lexicology is also very great for future teachers as it improves the knowledge of the vocabulary and helps users of the language master the speaking skills.
From: THE PRACTICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGES
by Henry Sweet
We can master enough of the grammar of any language for reading purposes within a definite period – generally less than six months – but we cannot… It is evident that every language in its colloquial form must be adapted to… (pp. 64-68)
ETYMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE ENGLISH WORDSTOCK
1. Some basic assumptions.
2. Words of native origin.
3. Borrowings in the English language.
4. Assimilation of borrowings.
Some special terms:
1. native words - words of Anglo-Saxon origin brought to the British Isles… 2. borrowing - l)the process of adopting words from other languages and 2) the result of this process. Not only words,…
Almost all of them belong to very important semantic groups, among them form-words:
- auxiliary and modal verbs: shall, will, should, would, must, can, may;
- pronouns: I, you, he, my, your, his, who, whose;
Due to the great influence of the Roman civilization Latin was for a long time used in England as the language of learning and religion, e.g.:… Old Norse was the language of the conquerors who were on the same level of… French (to be more exact its Norman dialect) was the language of the other conquerors who brought with them a lot of…
Assimilation of Borrowings
Assimilation - the process of adaptation of foreign words to the norms of the language.
Types of assimilation - phonetic, grammatical, lexical.
Partly assimilated loan words fall into subgroups:
- words not assimilated semantically, e.g.: sari, sombrero, shah, radja,… - loan words not assimilated grammatically, e.g. nouns borrowed from Latin or Greek preserve their original plural…
PART I. WORD-STRUCTURE AND WORD-FORMATION
WORD-FORMATION IN GENERAL
1. Morphemes. Their structural and semantic classifications.
2. Historic changeability of word structure.
3. Productive and non-productive ways of word-formation.
Like a word, a morpheme is a two-facet language unit, an association of a certain meaning with a certain sound-pattern.
Unlike a word, a morpheme is not an autonomous unit and can occur in speech… Morphemes cannot be segmented into smaller units, without losing their constitutive meaning.
As for some morphemes, in the course of time they may become fused together or may be lost altogether. As a result of this process, radical… in the structure of the word may take place: root-morphemes may turn into… E.g.: the present-day suffixes -hood, -dom, -like, -ship were in OE root-morphemes and stems of independently…
Productive and Nonproductive Ways of Word-Formation
There are different ways of forming words. Word-formation is the process of creating words from the material available in the language after certain structural and semantic formulae and patterns, e.g.: paint-er, week-end, TV, doctor - to doctor.
Productive word-formation is widely used to form a lot of new words with the help of: 1) affixation, 2) word-composition, 3) conversion, 4) shortening.
Non-productive ways of word-formation are not used now to form new words, they are: 1) back-formation, 2) sound-and-stress interchange.
AFFIXATION
1. Affixation as a type of word-formation.
2. Kinds of affixes.
3. Prefixation.
4. Suffixation.
Affixation as a Type of Word-Formation
Affixation is the formation of new words by adding derivational affixes to different types of stems.
On the derivational level derived words consist of a primary stem (simple, derived, compound) and a derivational affix.
E.g.: specialist = A (a simple stem) +-ist.
helplessness = (N + less - a derived stem) + -ness.
chairmanship = (N + N - a compound stem) + -ship.
Degrees of derivation:
the zero degree - the stem of such words coincides with a root morpheme: penny, help, black;
the 1st degree - the stem of such words consists of a root-morpheme and a derivational affix: penni-less, help-less, black-ness;
the 2nd degree - words formed by two consecutive stages of coining: help-less-ness, friend-li-ness
Kinds of Affixes
Prefixes:
1. Prefixation is mostly typical of verbs.
2. Prefixes change the lexical meaning of the stems (read - reread).
3. Only some prefixes change the part of speech formed: to en-train, to
em-bronze.
Suffixes:
1 .Suffixation is mostly characteristic of noun and adjective formation.
2. Suffixes also change the lexical meaning of words: helpless.
3.The majority of suffixes change the part of speech formed: child-less, to black-en. Only some suffixes do not change part of speech: brown - brownish, child - childhood, friend - friendship. They transfer a word into another semantic group (from concrete to abstract): child-childhood.
Prefixes may be classified into several groups on different principles: in accordance with their l)origin, 2)meaning, 3)function and according to… Diachronical Classification
Native prefixes: be - beset, mis - misdeed, un - unable, out - outlet, under - undergo, over - overall, after -…
Diachronic Approach
Native suffixes:-ness, -ish, -dom, -hood, -ing, etc.
Foreign suffixes: -ation, -ment, -ance,-tron, -ist, -ism, -ess, -all, -ade.
WORD-COMPOSITION
1. Compounding as a type of word-formation.
2. Structure of compound words: their inseparability.
3. Meaning of compound words. Motivation in compounds.
4. Classification of compounds.
5. Sources of compounds.
Compounding as a Type of Word-Formation
Compounding (or word-composition) is a productive type of word-formation. Compounds are made up by joining together at least two stems, mostly stems of notional parts of speech. Compounds have different degree of complexity: they may consist of simple and derived stems.
Phonetically compounds are also marked by a specific structure of their own. No phonetic changes of stems take place in composition, but the… 1. A high or unity stress on the first component: 'doorway, 'drawback,… 2. A double stress: with a primary stress on the first component and a weaker, secondary stress on the second…
e.g.: a handbag = a bag carried in the hand;
an ear-ring = a ring to wear in the ear.
But the meaning of a compound is not a simple sum of lexical meanings of its components: the new meaning dominates…
According to the degree of semantic independence of stems compounds are:
1) subordinative - the components are neither structurally nor semanti- cally… baby-sitter, speedometer;
CONVERSION
1. Definition. Treatment of conversion.
2. Semantic relations between conversion pairs.
3. Traditional and occasional conversion.
From the angle of their morphemic structure these words are root-words. On the derivational level, however, one of them (the 2nd) is a derived word,… There are two main cases of conversion:
- formation of verbs from nouns and rarely from other parts of speech: doctor - to doctor (from noun); thin - to thin…
I. Verbs converted from nouns. If the noun refers to some object of reality (both animate and inanimate) the converted verb may denote:
1. action characteristic of the object, e.g. witness - to witness; ape - to… 2. instrumental use of the object, e.g. elbow - to elbow; hammer - to hammer; stone - to stone;
In Modern English conversion has become highly productive in the formation of verbs, especially from compound nouns and of words formed by… Types of conversion:
- traditional - the accepted use of words which are recorded in dictionar ies, e.g. cook - to cook;
SHORTENING
1. Shortening as a minor way of word-formation.
2. Graphical shortening.
3. Lexical shortening.
4. Blending.
Shortening as a Minor Way of Word-Formation
Shortening of words is the way of the formation of new words by means of substituting a part of the word for a whole. This process affects both words
and word-groups. Therefore, the term «shortening of words» is to be regarded as conventional.
Types of shortening:
- graphical abbreviations,
- lexical shortening - lexical abbreviations, clippings, blendings.
All shortened words function in the language as any other ordinary word does, so they can take on grammatical inflections: exams, MPs , PMs; may be used with both types of articles: the BBC, a bike, the lib; they may be combined with derivational affixes and may be used in compounding: YCL-er; MP-ess; Euro-MP; etc.
Letters:
St - Street; Rd - Road; c/o - care of; Mr., Mrs., Dr., i.e.; P.S.; P.P.S.
Scientific books, dictionaries:
It is natural that in the course of time and language development some graphical abbreviations should penetrate into the sphere of oral speech and… They are formed by a simultaneous operation of shortening and compounding.… Ways of reading lexical abbreviations:
Blending
Blending is a specific type of shortening. Blends are formed by means of merging parts of words (not morphemes) into one new word. In other words blending is compounding by means of clipped words. Many blends are shortlived, others - long-lived, e.g.: Oxbridge; medicare; popcert (popular concert); fruice (fruite + juice); pomato (potato + tomato); medinews (medical news); bo-tel (boat + hotel); yarden (yard + garden); Irangate; cashomat (cash + automat); breathalyser (breath + analyser); chifforobe (chiffonier + wardrobe); docudrama (documentary + drama); learn (lazer + beam); eurocommunism, etc.
PART II. SEMASIOLOGY MEANING
1. Historical approaches to the study of word meaning.
2. Grammatical meaning.
3. Lexical meaning.
4. Denotational and connotational meaning.
In ancient Greece and Rome the study of language was a part of philosophy. The ancient Greeks first tackled the study of language. The difference… For the naturalists the major term was onomatopoeia, imitation of sounds. They… Phonaesthetic - There is something in the pronunciation of the word which relates certain aesthetic value and…
+human. But how can we describe the red colour using this theory, red -+colour. Such examples ruin the whole theory. Also the words which are used…
Use Theory of Meaning
This theory was set by the philosopher Widgenstern that says if you want to find a meaning of a word, you should find its use or describe it by its use. What he meant to say is that the meaning is in its usage and there are as many meanings as there are uses. A word does not necessarily have one meaning. This was the beginning of pragmatics. The actual meaning gets real in real life, in actual communication or in a specific situation. We have different meaning in different contexts.
(From: Macedonian Lectures on Lexicology)
Meaning is one of the most difficult problems in the theory of language and it has been the topic of interminable discussions. There is no… We notice that the words worked, ended, played, etc., those denoting… The words girls, tables, plates have the common element of plurality.
The irrelation of the lexical and the grammatical meaning and the role played by each varies in different word-classes and even in different groups… He is a teacher. - He will be a teacher.
He has a good voice. - He has done it well.
- denotational meaning (semes) - component of the lexical meaning that makes communication possible; the basis of the lexical meaning is some no… - connotational meaning which is divided into emotive charge and stylis tic… Besides it can be seen in some groups of synonyms, e.g.: large, big, tremendous; like, love, worship; girl, girlie.…
LEXICAL MEANING: STYLISTIC REFERENCE
1. Stylistic reference
2. Functional style of speech.
3. Division of vocabulary into different layers.
4. Formal vocabulary.
5. Informal vocabulary.
Stylistic Reference
Stylistic reference and emotive charge of words are closely connected and to a certain degree interdependent. As a rule, stylistically coloured words, i.e. words belonging to all stylistic layers except the neutral style are observed to possess a considerable emotive charge. This can be proved by comparing stylistically coloured words with their neutral synonyms. The colloquial words daddy, mummy are more emotional than the neutral father, mother. The slang words mum, bob are more expressive than their neutral synonyms silent, shilling; the poetic yon and steed carry a heavier emotive charge than their neutral synonyms there and horse.
Functional Style of Speech
In a highly developed language like English or Russian the same idea may be expressed differently in different situations. This difference depends on the style of speech. In general, the style means the collective characteristics of writing, diction, or any artistic expression and the way of presenting things.
Linguistically, a functional style may be defined as a system of expressive means peculiar to a specific sphere of communication.
The lexicological treatment of style is based on the principle of ^lexical oppositions. The basis of opposition is created by the similarity of denotational meaning, the distinctive feature is the stylistic reference. The broadest binary division is into formal and informal (colloquial) English.
Both formal and informal words have their upper and lower ranges. The lower range of bookish words approaches the neutral layer and has a tendency…
1. common literary words (learned words) - mostly polysemantic, used in books of elevated style and in books on science, e.g.: calamity, proceed,… 2. terms - words associated with a definite branch of science, used mostly in… 3. officialese and journalese - words used in mass media to describe oc currences of political life, e.g.:…
Low colloquial is illiterate popular speech. It includes:
1. slang-words that are regarded as violation of the norms of Standard… 2. jargonisms (argot) - words marked by their use within a particular so cial group and having a secret character.…
CHANGE OF MEANING
1. Change of meaning as a linguistic phenomenon.
2. Causes of semantic change.
3. Nature of semantic change: metaphor and metonymy.
4. Results of change of meaning.
Change of meaning has been profoundly studied. This problem embraces three points (aspects):
1. the causes of semantic change;
2. the nature of semantic change;
Extralinguistic causes
In nation's social life, in its culture, knowledge, technology, arts, changes… and phenomena must be named. There are two main ways for providing new names for newly created notions: making new…
Similarity of meanings, or metaphor may be described as a semantic process of associating two referents, one of which in some way resembles the
… other. In other words, metaphor is a transference of meaning on the basis of… The words denoting parts of human body are widely used metaphorically in different languages, e.g.: the leg of the…
Changes in the denotational meaning may result in the narrowing or extention of meaning, i.e., a -word of wide meaning gets a narrower sense in… Mod E deer - a particular kind of beast - îëåíü, OE - wild beast;
Mod E meat - eatable flesh (ìÿñî), OE - food;
AMBIGUITY OF MEANING
1. Grammatical and lexical ambiguity
2. Monosemantic and polysemantic words.
3. Primary and secondary meanings.
4. Basic and minor meanings.
A word is ambiguous if it has more than one sense or more than two synonyms that are not synonyms to each other. A sentence is ambiguous if it has… are two distinct senses and they are not synonymous to each other. There is… Structure of grammatical ambiguity
Monosemantic words, i.e. words having only one meaning, are comparatively few in number; they are mainly scientific terms such as molecule,… Most words convey several notions and thus have several meanings; they are… Semantic Structure of a Word
The terms «secondary» (âòîðè÷íîå) and «derived» (ïðîèçâîäíîå) meanings are to a certain extent synonymous. The term «secondary» denotes (implies)… When we refer to the meaning «derived» we do not only stress the fact that the… It follows that the main source of polysemy is a change in the semantic structure of the word.
By synchronic approach we must distinguish the basic (the central) meaning of the word and the minor meanings. The basic meaning of the word is… A proper objective criterion of the comparative value of individual meanings… table 1) ñòîë (52% of all the uses of the word);
Ideographic synonyms are words conveying the same notion but differing in shades of meaning or emotions expressed: a piece - a lump - a slice; to… Stylistic synonyms are words conveying the same notion but different in… to begin - to start - to commence;
- connotation of degree or intensity: to surprise - to astonish - to amaze; to shout - to yell - to bellow - to roar;
to like - to admire - to love - to adore - to worship;
- connotation of duration of the action:
EUPHEMISMS
1. Superstitious taboos.
2. Social taboos.
Euphemism is a way of speaking by which an unpleasant, improper _or offensive thing is designated by an indirect and milder term.
The roots of euphemisms lie in religious taboos which dictated the avoidance… Superstitious taboos have their roots in the distant past of mankind when people believed that there was a…
The word lavatory has produced a great number of euphemisms: powder room, washroom, restroom, retiring room, comfort station, ladies' room,… Pregnancy is another topic for «delicate» references: to have a belly, she… The word trousers not so long ago, had a great number of euphemisms: unmentionables, unwhisperables, indescribables,…
ANTONYMS
1. The definition of antonymy.
2. Types of antonymy.
3. Kinds of antonyms.
Markedness is a category that operates with pairs of words which are antonyms but not lexically specified. It is definite for roots of words where… Relativity of Antonymy
Small elephants are big animals. Small and big is antonymy and elephants and animals hyponymy. The antonyms are…
Gradation
Also operates with two members of a pair but they can be graded and compared.… Converse (relational) antonymy.
formed by adding negative prefixes such as: anti-freeze; in-complete; un-fair and the suffix -less: senseless. The derivational antonymy is achieved… Semantic antonymy. There are two derivational antonyms of the root predicate -… Phrasal antonymy. This involves words in phrases, e.g. by accident - on purpose.
NEOLOGISMS AND ARCHAISMS
1. The definition of neologism.
2. Kinds of neologisms.
3. Ways of word-forming of neologisms.
4. Archaisms.
New words and expressions, or neologisms, are created for new things irrespective of their scale of importance. They may be very important, e.g.… 1. either an old word is appropriately changed in meaning, or
2. new words are borrowed, or
Terminological neologisms referring to the bookish vocabulary, as a rule, in the course of time become part of the language system and they become… Many new words and word-phrases, referring to science and technic, are formed… morphemes available in the language, and they are international words, e.g.: isotope, isotron, cyclotron, supersonic…
Formation of neologisms with the help of affixation Here one must mention two important factors: enlarging of the role of prefixation and of the… Neologisms formed by prefixation federation - ïðåêðàùàòü íîðìèðîâàíèå… self- âûòåñíÿåò ãðå÷åñêóþ ïðèñòàâêó auto-
Many words become obsolete in ordinary language, but remain in poetry, in books conforming to a definite style, in oratory, etc. A great many… The fate of obsolete words may be different. We distinguish two groups of… Historisms are names of things and phenomena which passed out of use with the development of social, economical,…
PART III. PHRASEOLOGY
FREE WORD-GROUPS AND PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS
1. Some basic features of word-groups.
2. Structure of word-groups.
3. Meaning of word-groups.
4. Motivation in word-groups.
The degree of structural and semantic cohesion of word-groups may vary. Some word-groups, e.g. at least, point of view, by means, to take place,… Before discussing phraseology it is necessary to outline the features common… There are two factors which are important in uniting words into word-groups:
By the criterion of distribution all word-groups may be divided into two big classes: according to their head-words and according to their… Word-groups may be classified according to their head-words into:
nominal groups - red flower;
Meaning of Word-Groups
The lexical meaning of a word-group may be defined as the combined lexical meaning of the component members. But it should be pointed out, however, that the term «combined lexical meaning» does not imply that the meaning of the word-group is always a simple additive result of all the lexical meanings of the component words. As a rule, the meanings of the component words are mutually dependent and the meaning of the word-group naturally predominates over the lexical meaning of the components. The interdependence is well seen in word-groups made up of polysemantic words. E.g., in the phrases the blind man, the blind type the word blind has different meanings - unable to see and vague.
So we see that polysemantic words are used in word-groups only in one of their meanings.
It follows from the above discussion that word-groups may be also classified into motivated and non-motivated units. Non-motivated word-groups are… Investigations of English phraseology began not long ago. English and American… In our country research in English phraseology has been constantly carried on for at least 60 years and has some…
CLASSIFICATIONS OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS
1. Criteria of stability and lack of motivation.
2. General classification of phraseological units.
3. Structural classification.
4. Genetic (etymological) classification.
5. Proverbs.
Unlike components of free word-groups which may vary according to the needs of communication, member-words of phraseological units are always… In the phraseological unit red tape (áþðîêðàòè÷åñêèå ìåòîäû) no such… Grammatical structure of phraseological units is to a certain degree also stable:
- phraseological fusions (ñðàùåíèÿ),
- phraseological unities (åäèíñòâà),
- phraseological collocations (ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿ), or habitual collocations. Phraseological fusions are completely…
So we distinguish set-expressions that are nominal phrases, functioning like nouns,
e.g.:Jack-of-all-trades - ìàñòåð íà âñå ðóêè,
ways and means - ñïîñîáû, ñðåäñòâà,
sea life:
tell that to the marines — âçäîð! âðè áîëüøå!
in deep waters - â áåäå,
e.g.:custom is the second nature - ïðèâû÷êà âòîðàÿ íàòóðà;
every man has a fool in his sleeve - íà âñÿêîãî ìóäðåöà äîâîëüíî ïðîñòîòû;
… too many cooks spoil the broth - ó ñåìè íÿíåê äèòÿ áåç ãëàçó.
PART IV. VARIETIES OF ENGLISH
One of the best known Southern dialects is Cockney, the regional dialect of London. This dialect exists on two levels: as spoken by the educated… The Scottish Tongue and the Irish English have a special linguistic status as… English is the national language of England proper, the USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Hence, there exist…
An americanism - a word (set expression) peculiar to the English language as spoken in the USA. E.g. cookie 'a biscuit'; frame house 'a house… A general Aand comprehensive description of the American variant is given in… The difference between the American and British literary norm is not systematic. The American variant of the English…
Modern Canada is a federal state which consists of ten provinces and two territories. The population of Canada is mixed: the main part consists of… The mixed character of the population naturally finds its reflection in the… The Indian languages gave names to animals, birds, fishes plants, etc., and also to objects and phenomena which were…
In the 20th century the population of Australia was a special nation differing from the British, and it was united by the common language,… Australian English has peculiarities in pronunciation, intonation, spelling… In Australia the first settlers (1788) found themselves in quite new natural surrounding. The new objects and concepts…
In the years of gold rush such common for Australia and New Zealand words appeared in the language as: digger – çîëîòîèñêàòåëü, ïàðåíü, to fossick -… Other words of Australian origin are everyday words of New Zealand English:… The divergence of the New Zealand and British vocabulary definitely is not limited by the australianisms spread in New…
PART VI LEXICOGRAPHY
The ultimate goal of lexicography is the art of making dictionaries. Lexicology deals with words, forms and structure, lexical meaning, usage and diachronic analysis (origin and development). Lexicography is applied knowledge of lexicology. There is a constant give and take reciprocal relationship between lexicology and lexicography. They both strive for completeness and systematization. The only distinction is that lexicography is exhaustive in listing and describing all the existing words, i.e. the lexical units in a language, which is not the case with lexicology that only chooses examples to provide rules and principles.
1.Types of dictionaries
1. Problems in lexicography.
2. 3.H. Sweet about dictionaries.
Types of dictionaries
1. Monolingual (explanatory); bilingual (translation); multilingual.
2. General - very general lexical stock and vocabulary; specific – covers some specific parts or areas of vocabulary.
3. The size of the dictionaries could be: pocket, standard, encyclopedic.
4. Specific such as: linguistic, medical or technical, etymological, phonological, etc.
5. Linguistic monolingual dictionaries which deal with one specific aspect from linguistics: dictionary of proper names; of proverbs; loanwords; phraseology, etc.
In standard dictionaries there is information and order — alphabetically listed words, phonetic transcription and a word class.
2. Arrangement of lexical entries — the way the items are arranged, e.g. each other, where these two words should be listed under E or O.or they
… should be separated, e.g. department store under D or S. Whatever option is… 3.. Problem of homonymy and polysemy, e.g. pupil and pupil' - whether they have different entries in the dictionary;
…
It will, perhaps, be most convenient to begin with that aspect of the dictionary which makes it the reverse of the grammar. From this point of view… Idioms fall entirely within the province of the dictionary, because the… A thoroughly useful dictionary ought, besides, to give information on various grammatical details, which, though they…
CONCLUSION
METHODS AND PROCEDURES OF LEXICOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
1. Procedures of linguistic investigation.
2. Contrastive analysis.
3. Statistical analysis.
4. Immediate constituents analysis.
5. Distributional analysis.
6. Transformational analysis.
7. Componental analysis.
8. Method of semantic differential.
The process of scientific investigation may be subdivided into several stages: 1. observation; 2. classification of the data obtained through… All methods of linguistic analysis are traditionally subdivided into…
English: head of a person - in Russian: ãîëîâà
of a bed èçãîëîâüå
It is common knowledge that very few people know more than 10% of the words of their mother language. Out of about 500,000 words listed in the 'OED… Statistic analysis helps to determine-the frequency of occurrence of the…
Immediate Constituents Analysis
Immediate constituents analysis has the aim to segment a set of lexical units into two maximally independent sequences or immediate constituents (IC) thus revealing the hierarchical structure of the set.
E.g.: fat man's wife = fat man's/ wife;
de/ nationalize; blue/ eye/ ed.
This kind of analysis is widely used in word-formation.
Distribution and meaning are interdependent. It is only the distribution of otherwise completely identical lexical units that accounts for the… It should be noted that not only words in a word-group but also whole… Distributional analysis is mainly applied by the linguists to find out sameness or difference of meaning, e.g.:…
Àááðåâèàòóðà (abbreviation)- ñëîâî, îáðàçîâàííîå èç íàçâàíèé íà÷àëüíûõ áóêâ èëè èç íà÷àëüíûõ çâóêîâ ñëîâ, âõîäÿùèõ â èñõîäíîå ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèå… Àíòîíèìèÿ (antonymy)- ñåìàíòè÷åñêàÿ ïðîòèâîïîñòàâëåííîñòü,… Àíòîíèìû (antonyms)- ñëîâà, èìåþùèå ïðîòèâîïîëîæíûå çíà÷åíèÿ. Îñíîâîé àíòîíèìèè ÿâëÿåòñÿ íàëè÷èå â çíà÷åíèè ñëîâà…
List of Literature
Baker S.J. The Australian Language. Sydney, 1945.
Endacott S.J. Australian Aboriginal Words and Place Names, 1955.
Ginzburg R.S., Khidekel S.S., Knyazeva G.Y., Sankin A.A. A Course in Modern English Lexicology. Moscow, 1966.
English Lexicology. Lectures compiled by students from the ST.Cyril & Methodious University, English Department – Skopje, Republic of Macedonia.
Palmer F.R. Semantics. A new Outline. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1977.
Sweet H. The Practical Study of Languages. Oxford Univ. press, 1964.
Áåëÿåâà Ò.Ì., Ïîòàïîâà È.À. Àíãëèéñêèé ÿçûê çà ïðåäåëàìè Àíãëèè. – Ëåíèíãðàä, 1961.
Etymological survey of the English language..............................
I. Word structure and word… Affixation.....................................................................................
Òåîðåòè÷åñêèå ìàòåðèàëû ïî ëåêñèêîëîãèè ñîâðåìåííîãî àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà
Êîððåêòîð Ì.Â. Ïåðìÿêîâà Îðèãèíàë-ìàêåò: Í.Ñ. Åëîõèíà
Èçä ëèö. ËÓ¹ 042 îò 08.10.96.
Ïîäïèñàíî â ïå÷àòü .01.2004. Ôîðìàò 60õ84'/16. Íàïå÷àòàíî íà ðèçîãðàôå.
Óñë. ïå÷. ë. . Ó÷.-èçä. ë. . Òèðàæ ýêç. Çàêàç
Ãëàçîâñêèé ãîñóäàðñòâåííûé ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèé èíñòèòóò 427621, ã. Ãëàçîâ, óë. Ïåðâîìàéñêàÿ, ä. 25