III.a. Make up a list of literary learned words selected from the following.

Все темы данного раздела:

English Lexicology
    Рекомендовано Министерством образования Российской Федерации в качестве учебного пособия для студентов высших учебных заведений, обучающихся по педагогическ

Антрушина Г. В., Афанасьева О. В., Морозова Н. Н.
А72 Лексикология английского языка: Учеб. пособие для студентов. — 3-е изд., стереотип. — М.: Дрофа, 2001. — 288 с. ISBN 5—7107—4955—9   Учебное пособие включает раз

Contents
INTRODUCTION. What Is a Word? What Is Lexicology?...................................... 5 CHAPTER 1. Which Word Should We Choose, Formal or Informal?..................... 9 CHAPTE

Preface
  In this book the reader will find the fundamentals of the word theory and of the main problems associated with English vocabulary, its characteristics and subdivisions. Each chapter

INTRODUCTION
What Is a Word? What Is Lexicology?   What's in a name? that which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet...  

The Main Lexicological Problems
  Two of these have already been underlined. The problemof word-building is associated with prevailing morphological word-structures and with processes of making new words. Semantics

Consider your answers to the following.
  1. In what way can one analyse a word a) socially, b) linguistically? 2. What are the structural aspects of the word? 3. What is the external structure of the word

CHAPTER 1
Which Word Should We Choose, Formal or Informal?   Just as there is formal and informal dress, so there is formal and informal speech. One is not supposed to

Informal Style
  Informal vocabulary is used in one's immediate circle: family, relatives or friends. One uses informal words when at home or when feeling at home. Informal style is relaxed

Colloquial Words
  Among other informal words, colloquialisms are the least exclusive: they are used by everybody, and their sphere of communication is comparatively wide, at least of litera

Dialect Words
  H. W. Fowler defines a dialect as "a variety of a language which prevails in a district, with local peculiarities of vocabulary, pronunciation and phrase".[19] England is

I. Consider your answers to the following.
  1. What determines the choice of stylistically marked words in each particular situation? 2. In what situations are informal words used? 3. What are the main kinds

III. a. Read the following extract.
  A young man, Freddie by name, had invited a pretty young girl April to a riverside picnic. April could not come and sent her little sister to keep Freddie company. It was n

IV. Read the following jokes. Write out the informal words and word-groups and say whether they are colloquial, slang or dialect.
  1. A Yankee passenger in an English train was beguiling his fellow passengers with tall stories1 and remarked: "We can start with a twenty-story apartment house this month, and

Learned Words
  These words are mainly associated with the printed page. It is in this vocabulary stratum that poetry and fiction find their main resources. The term "learned" is

Archaic and Obsolete Words
  These words stand close to the "learned" words, particularly to the modes of poetic diction. Learned words and archaisms are both associated with the printed page. Yet, as

Professional Terminology
  Hundreds of thousands of words belong to special scientific, professional or trade terminological systems and are not used or even understood by people outside the particular specia

Basic Vocabulary
  These words are stylistically neutral, and, in this respect, opposed to formal and informal words described above. Their stylistic neutrality makes it possible to use them in all ki

I. Consider your answers to the following.
  1. Where are formal words used? 2. Are learned words used only in books? Which type of learned words, do you think, is especially suitable for verbal communication? Which i

The Etymology of English Words.1
Are All English Words Really English?   As a matter of fact, they are — if we regard them in the light of present-day English. If, however, their origins are

I. Latin Affixes
  Nouns The suffix -ion communion, legion, opinion, session, union, etc. The suffix -tion

II. French Affixes
    Nouns The suffix -ance arrogance, endurance, hindrance, etc. The suffix -erace

The Etymological Structure of English Vocabulary
  The native element1 The borrowed element   I. Indo-European element II. Germanic element     III. Englis

I. Consider your answers to the following.
  1. How can you account for the fact that English vocabulary contains such an immense number of words of foreign origin? 2. What is the earliest group of English borrowings?

III. Read the following jokes. Explain the etymology of the italicized words. If necessary consult a dictionary.1
  1. He dropped around to the girl's house and as he ran up the steps he was confronted by her little brother. "Hi, Billy."

V. In the following sentences find examples of Latin borrowings; identify the period of borrowings.
  1. The garden here consisted of a long smooth lawn with two rows of cherry trees planted in the grass. 2. They set to pork-pies, cold potatoes, hard-boiled eggs, cold bacon, ham, cr

VII. Study the map of Great Britain and find the names of places, rivers and hills of Celtic origin.
VIII. In the sentences given below find the examples of Scandinavian borrowings. How can the Scandinavian borrowings be identified?     1. He w

IX. Read the following jokes and identify the Scandinavian borrowings.
  1. "Very sorry, Mr. Brown, but the coffee is exhausted," the landlady announced. "Not at all surprised," came back Mr. Brown. "I've seen it growing

X. Copy out the examples of Norman and Parisian borrowings from the following passage. Describe the structural peculiarities of these words.
  1. It was while they were having coffee that a waitress brought a message to their table. 2.1 knew nothing about the film world and imagined it to be a continuous ferment of persona

The Roman Occupation
For some reason the Romans neglected to overrun the country with fire and sword, though they had both of these; in fact after the Conquest they did not mingle with the Britons at all but lived a se

CHAPTER 4
The Etymology of English Words (continued)   Why Are Words Borrowed?   This question partially concerns the histor

International Words
  It is often the case that a word is borrowed by several languages, and not just by one. Such words usually convey concepts which are significant in the field of communication.

Etymological Doublets
  The words shirt and skirt etymologically descend from the same root. Shirt is a native word, and skirt (as the initial sk suggests) is a Scandinav

Translation-Loans
  The term loan-word is equivalent to borrowing. By translation-loans we indicate borrowings of a special kind. They are not taken into the vocabulary of another languag

III. Explain the etymology of the italicized words; identify the stage of assimilation.
  1. Obviously, chere madame, the thief would take care to recover the money before he returned the dog. 2. Heyward went to the kitchen for a glass of milk. 3. It was a

V. In the following sentences find one of a pair of etymological doublets and name the missing member of the pair.
  1.1 led Mars (a dog) into the shadow of the building and looked around me. 2. "Unreliable", he said, "those fancy locks. Always getting jammed, aren't they?&qu

VII. Read the following text. Copy out the international words. State to what sphere of human activity they belong.
  British Dramatists   In the past 20 years there has been a considerable increase in the number of new playwrights in Britain and this has been encouraged by t

VIII. Read the following jokes. Identify examples of international words.
  1. Genius is one percent inspiration and ninety-nine percent perspiration. 2. A psychologist is a man who watches everybody rise when a beautiful girl enters the room. 3. An expert

IX. State the origin of the following translation-loans. Give more examples.
  Five-year plan, wonder child, masterpiece, first dancer, collective farm, fellow-traveller. X. What is the difference between the words in the following pairs? Anal

XIII. Read the following extract. State the etymology of the italicized words. Comment upon their stylistic characteristics.
  The Oxford accent exists, but it defies definition. If is not, as the French think, the kind of English which is spoken within a twenty mile radius of the city.

How English Words Are Made. Word-Building1
  Before turning to the various processes of making words, it would be useful to analyse the related problem of the composition of words, i. e. of their constituent parts. If

Affixation
  The process of affixation consists in coining a new word by adding an affix or several affixes to some root morpheme. The role of the affix in this procedure is Very importan

Some Productive Affixes
  Noun-forming suffixes -er, -ing, -ness, -ism1 (materialism), -ist1 (impressionist), -ance Adj

Some Non-Productive Affixes
  Noun-forming suffixes -th,-hood Adjective-forming suffixes -ly, -some, -en, -ous

Semantics of Affixes
  The morpheme, and therefore affix, which is a type of morpheme, is generally defined as the smallest indivisible component of the word possessing a meaning of its own. Meanin

I. Consider your answers to the following.
  1. What are the main ways of enriching the English vocabulary? 2. What are the principal productive ways of word-building in English? 3. What do we mean by derivat

B. Those formed with the help of non-productive affixes. Explain the etymology of each borrowed affix.
1. Willie was invited to a party, where refreshments were bountifully served. "Won't you have something more, Willie?" the hostess said. "No, t

IV. Explain the etymology and productivity of the affixes given below. Say what parts of speech can be formed with their help.
  -ness, -ous, -ly, -y, -dom, -ish, -tion, -ed, -en, -ess, -or, -er, -hood, -less, -ate, -ing, -al, -ful, un-, re-, im (in)-, dis-, over-, ab- V. Write out fro

IX. Find eases of conversion in the following sentences.
  1. The clerk was eyeing him expectantly. 2. Under the cover of that protective din he was able to toy with a steaming dish which his waiter had brought. 3. An aggressive man battled

XI. Explain the semantic correlations within the following pairs of words.
  Shelter — to shelter, park — to park, groom — to groom, elbow — to elbow, breakfast — to breakfast, pin — to pin, trap — to trap, fish — to fish, head — to head, nurse — to nurse.

XIII. Read the following joke, explain the type of word-building in the italicized words and say everything you can about the way they were made.
A successful old lawyer tells the following story about the beginning of his professional life: "I had just installed myself in my office, had put i

Composition
  This type of word-building, in which new words are produced by combining two or more stems, is one of the three most productive types in Modern English, the other two are conversion

Semi-Affixes
  Consider the following examples. "... The Great Glass Elevator is shockproof, waterproof, bombproof, bulletproof, and Knidproof1..." (From Charlie and

Shortening (Contraction)
  This comparatively new way of word-building has achieved a high degree of productivity nowadays, especially in American English. Shortenings (or contracted/curtailed words)

Sound-Imitation (Onomatopoeia1)
  Words coined by this interesting type of word-building are made by imitating different kinds of sounds that may be produced by animals, birds, insects, human beings and inanimate ob

Reduplication
  In reduplication new words are made by doubling a stem, either without any phonetic changes as in bye-bye (coil, for good-bye} or with a variation of the root-v

Back-Formation (Reversion)
  The earliest examples of this type of word-building are the verb to beg that was made from the French borrowing beggar, to burgle from burglar, to cobble from

I. Consider your answers to the following.
  1. What is understood by composition? What do we call words made by this type of word-building? 2. Into what groups and subgroups can compounds be subdivided structurally?

A. Simple neutral compounds. B. Neutral derived compounds. C. Neutral contracted compounds.
  An air-conditioned hall; a glass-walled room; to fight against H-bomb; a loud revolver-shot; a high-pitched voice; a heavy topcoat; a car's windshield; a snow-white handkerchief; bi

VIII. Find shortenings in the jokes and extracts given below and specify the method of their formation.
  1. Brown: But, Doc, I got bad eyes! Doctor: Don't worry. We'll put you up front.5 You won't miss a thing.   2. "How was your guard duty yester

CHAPTER 7
What Is "Meaning"?   Language is the amber in which a thousand precious and subtle thoughts have been safely embedded an

Polysemy. Semantic Structure of the Word
  The semantic structure of the word does not present an indissoluble unity (that is, actually, why it is referred to as "structure"), nor does it necessarily stand for one

Types of Semantic Components
  The leading semantic component in the semantic structure of a word is usually termed denotative component (also, the term referential component may be used). The denot

Meaning and Context
  In the beginning of the paragraph entitled "Polysemy" we discussed the advantages and disadvantages of this linguistic phenomenon. One of the most important "drawback

I. Consider your answers to the following.
  1. What is understood by "semantics"? Explain the term "polysemy". 2. Define polysemy as a linguistic phenomenon. Illustrate your answer with your own e

II. Define the meanings of the words in the following sentences. Say how the meanings of the same word are associated one with another.
  1.I walked into Hyde Park, fell flat upon the grass and almost immediately fell asleep. 2. a) 'Hello', I said, and thrust my hand through the bars, whereon the

V. Explain the basis for the following jokes. Use the dictionary when in doubt.
  1. Caller: I wonder if I can see your mother, little boy. Is she engaged9 Willie: Engaged! She's married.   2. Booking Clerk

VII. Read the following jokes. Analyse the collocability of the italicized words and state its relationship with the meaning.
  1. Ladу (at party): Where is that pretty maid who was passing our cocktails a while ago? Hostess: Oh, you are looking for a drink? Lady: No, I'm l

How Words Develop New Meanings
  It has been mentioned that the systems of meanings of polysemantic words evolve gradually. The older a word is, the better developed is its semantic structure. The normal pattern of

Causes of Development of New Meanings
  The first group of causes is traditionally termed historical or extra-linguistic. Different kinds of changes in a nation's social life, in its culture, knowledge, te

The Process of Development and Change of Meaning
  The second question we must answer in this chapter is how new meanings develop. To find the answer to this question we must investigate the inner mechanism of this process, o

Transference Based on Resemblance (Similarity)
  This type of transference is also referred to as linguistic metaphor. A new meaning appears as a result of associating two objects (phenomena, qualities, etc.) due to their o

Transference Based on Contiguity
  Another term for this type of transference is linguistic metonymy. The association is based upon subtle psychological links between different objects and phenomena, sometimes

Narrowing (or Specialization) of Meaning
  Sometimes, the process of transference may result in a considerable change in range of meaning. For instance, the verb to arrive (French borrowing) began its life in English

II. Read the following extracts and explain the semantic processes by which the italicized words acquired their meanings
  1. 'Bureau', a desk, was borrowed from French in the 17thc. In Modern French (and English) it means not only the desk but also the office itself and the authority exercised b

IV. Explain the logical associations in the following groups of meaning for the same words. Define the type of transference which has taken place.
  1. The wing of a bird — the wing of a building; the eye of a man — the eye of a needle; the hand of a child — the hand of a clock; the heart of a man — the heart of the matter; the

V. Analyse the process of development of new meanings in the italicized words in the examples given below.
  1.I put the letter well into the mouth of the box and let it go and it fell turning over and over like an autumn leaf. 2. Those v/ho had been the head of the line paus

VI. Explain the basis for the following jokes. Trace the logical associations between the different meanings of the same word.
  1. Father was explaining to his little son the fundamentals of astronomy. "That's a comet." "A what?" "A comet. You know what a c

VII. In the examples given below identify the eases of widening and narrowing of meaning.
  1. While the others waited the elderly executive filled his pipe and lit it. 2. Finn was watching the birds. 3. The two girls took hold of one another, one acting gentleman,

Words of the Same Form
Homonyms are words which are identical in sound and spelling, or, at least, in one of these aspects, but different in their meaning.   E. g. bank, n. — a sho

Sources of Homonyms
  One source of homonyms has already been mentioned: phonetic changes which words undergo in the course of their historical development. As a result of such changes, two or mor

Classification of Homonyms
  The subdivision of homonyms into homonyms proper, homophones and homographs is certainly not precise enough and does not reflect certain important features of these wo

I. Consider your answers to the following.
  1. Which words do we call homonyms? 2. Why can't homonyms be regarded as expressive means of the language? 3. What is the traditional classification of homonyms? I

II. Find the homonyms in the following extracts. Classify them into homonyms proper, homographs and homophones.
  1. "Mine is a long and a sad tale!" said the Mouse, turning to Alice, and sighing. "It is a long tail, certainly," said Alice, looking down with wonder at the Mo

IV. a. Find the homonyms proper for the following words; give their Russian equivalents.
  1. bared — a company of musicians. 2. seal — a warm-blooded, fish-eating sea-animal, found chiefly in cold regions. 3. ear — the grain-bearing spike of a cereal plant,

C. Find the homographs to the following words and transcribe both.
  1. To bow — to bend the head or body. 2. wind — air in motion. 3. to tear— to pull apart by force. 4. to desert -— to go away from a person or place. 5.

B. Explain the homonyms which form the basis for the following jokes. Classify the types as in part a.
  1. An observing man claims to have discovered the colour of the wind. He says he went out and found it blew. 2. Child: Mummy, what makes the Tower of Pisa lean? Fa

VII. Explain how the following italicized words became homonyms.
  1. a) Eliduc's overlord was the king of Brittany, who was very fond of the knight, b) "I haven't slept a wink all night, my eyes just wouldn't shut." 2. a) T

A) etymology, b) word-building, c) stylistic characteristics
  "But I love the Italians," continued Mrs. Blair. "They are so obliging — though even that has its embarrassing side. You ask

A) stylistic characteristics, b) semantics, e) word-building.
  Once in the driving seat, with reins handed to him, and blinking over his pale old cheeks in the full sunlight, he took a slow look round. Adolf was already up

CHAPTER 10
Synonyms: Are Their Meanings the Same or Different?   Synonymy is one of modern linguistics' most controversial problems. The very

Criteria of Synonymy
  Synonymy is associated with some theoretical problems which at present are still an object of controversy. Probably, the most controversial among these is the problem of criteria of

Types of Synonyms
  The only existing classification system for synonyms was established by Academician V. V. Vinogradov, the famous Russian scholar. In his classification system there are three types

Types of Connotations
  I. The connotation of degree or intensity can be traced in such groups of synonyms as to surprise — to astonish — to amaze — to astound;1 to satisfy — to please

I. Consider your answers to the following.
  1. Say why synonyms are one of the language's most important expressive means. Illustrate your answer with examples. 2. Synonyms are sometimes described as words with "

II. The sentences given below contain synonyms. Write them out in groups and explain the difference where the words are familiar.
1. a) While Kitty chatted gaily with her neighbours she watched Walter, b) Ashenden knew that R. had not sent for him to talk about weather and crops, c) As he spoke he rose from the bed. d) He is

VI. Single out the denotative and connotative components of meanings of the synonyms in the examples given below.
  l. a) At the little lady's command they all three smiled, b) George, on hearing the story grinned. 2. a) Forsyte — the best palate in London. The palate that in a sens

VIII. Say why the italicized synonyms in the examples given below are not interchangeable.
  1. a) The little boys stood glaring at each other ready to start a fight, b) The Greek myth runs that Narcissus gazed at his own reflection in the water until he fell

B. synonyms differentiated by connotation of manner.
  1. Besides, Jack is a notorious domesticity for John! 2. His eyes sparkled with amusement. 3. "Joey-Joey...!" I said staggering unevenly towards the p

XII. Within the following synonymic groups single out words with emotive connotations.
  1. Fear— terror— horror. 2. look— stare— glare — gaze — glance. 3. love — admire — adore — worship. 4. alone — single — solitary — lonely. 5. tremble — shiver — shudder — shake. 6.

The Dominant Synonym
  The attentive reader will have noticed that in the previous chapter much use was made of the numerous synonyms of the verb to look, and yet, the verb to look itself wa

Euphemisms
  There are words in every language which people instinctively avoid because they are considered indecent, indelicate, rude, too direct or impolite. As the "offensive" refer

Antonyms
  We use the term antonyms to indicate words of the same category of parts of speech which have contrasting meanings, such as hot — cold, light —- dark, happiness — sorrow,

I. Consider your answers to the following.
  1. Which word in a synonymic group is considered to be the dominant synonym? What are its characteristic features? 2. Can the dominant synonym be substituted for certain ot

II. Find the dominant synonym in the following groups of synonyms. Explain your choice.
  1. to glimmer — to glisten — to blaze — to shine — to sparkle— to flash— to gleam. 2. to glare— to gaze — to peep — to look — to stare — to glance. 3. to astound — to surprise — to

VI. Find the euphemisms in the following sentences and jokes. Name the words for which they serve as euphemistic substitutes.
  1. Policeman (to intoxicated man who is trying to fit his key to a lamp-post): I'm afraid there's nobody home there tonight. Man: Mus' be. Mus' be. Theresh a light upstairsh.

VIII. Find antonyms in the following jokes and extracts and describe the resultant stylistic effect.
  1.Policeman (holding up his hand}: Stop! Visitor: What's the matter? P.: Why are you driving on the right side of the road? V.: Do you want me to r

CHAPTER 12
Phraseology: Word-Groups with Transferred Meanings Phraseological units, or idioms, as they are called by most western scholars, represent what can probab

How to Distinguish Phraseological Units from Free Word-Groups
  This is probably the most discussed — and the most controversial — problem in the field of phraseology. The task of distinguishing between free word-groups and phraseological units

Proverbs
  Consider the following examples of proverbs: We never know the value of water till the well is dry. You can take the horse to the water, but you cannot m

I. Consider your answers to the following.
  1. What do v/e mean when we say that an idiom has a "double" meaning? 2. Why is it very important to use idioms with care? Should foreign-language students use th

V. Substitute phraseological units incorporating the names of colours for the italicized words.
  1. I'm feeling rather miserable today. 2. He spends all his time on bureaucratic routine. 3. A thing like that happens very rarely. 4. You can talk ti

IX. Say what structural variations are possible in the following phraseological units. If in doubt, consult the dictionaries.
  To catch at a straw; a big bug; the last drop; to build a castle in the air; to weather the storm; to get the upper hand; to run for one's life; to do wonders; to run a risk; just t

Principles of Classification
  It would be interesting now to look at phraseological units from a different angle, namely: how are all these treasures of the language approached by the linguistic science? The ver

I. Consider your answers to the following.
  1. What is the basis of the traditional and oldest principle for classifying phraseological units? 2. What other criteria can be used for the classification of phraseologic

B. Give at least fifteen examples of your own to illustrate the phraseological units in your list.
III. a. Read the following text. Compile a list of the phraseological units used in it.1 Classify them according to Academician Vinogradov's classification system for phraseological units.

V. Complete the following sentences, using the phraseological units given in the list below. Translate them into Russian.
  1. If I pay my rent, I won't have any money to buy , food. I'm between ——. 2. It's no use grumbling about your problems — we're all ——. 3. He's sold his house and his business to go

VII. Complete the following sentences, using the words from the list below. Translate the phraseological units into Russian.
  1. She was so embarrassed that she went as red as a ——. 2.1 can carry the suitcase easily, it's as light as a ——. 3. The room is as warm as ——. 4. My sister does so many things that

VIII. In the examples given below identify the phraseological units and classify them on the semantic principle.
  1. The operation started badly and everyone was in a temper throughout. 2.1 know a man who would love meeting you. The perfect nut for you to crack your teeth on. 3.1 wish I had you

More Precise
  Two aviation meteorologists were engaged in shop talk. "No, I don't watch the TV weather commentary. I reckon you get better weather on the radio," said on

Do Americans Speak English
or American?   In one of his stories Oscar Wilde said that the English "have really everything in common with America nowadays, except, of course, langu

Vocabulary of American English
  It is quite true that the vocabulary used by American speakers, has distinctive features of its own. More than that: there are whole groups of words which belong to American vocabul

The Grammar System of American English
  Here we are likely to find even fewer divergencies than in the vocabulary system. The first distinctive feature is the use of the auxiliary verb will in the first pe

I. Consider your answers to the following.
  1. In what different ways might the language spoken in the USA be viewed linguistically? 2. What are the peculiarities of the vocabulary of English spoken in the USA?

XIII. Bead the following extract. Explain the difference in the meanings of the italicized words in American and British English.
  In America just as in English, you see the same shops with the same boards and windows in every town and village. Shopping, however, is an art of its own and you have to le

XVIII. Read the following passage. Give some more examples illustrating the differences in grammar between the two varieties of English.
  Q: I thought Americans always said gotten when they used the verb get as a full verb. But you did say I've got your point, didn't you? M: Yes, I did. Y

Supplementary Material
To Chapters 3, 4   From "GROWTH AND STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE" by Otto Jespersen   Ch. IV.

Sources
  1. Амосова Н. Н. Английская контекстология. Л., 1968. 2. Амосова Н. Н. Основы английской фразеологии. Л., 1963. 3. Аракин В. Д. Очерки по исто

DICTIONARIES
  43. Апресян Ю. Д., Ботякова В. В., Латышева Т. Э. и др. Англо-русский синонимический словарь. М., 1998. 44. Аракин В. Д. и др. Англо-русский словарь. М., 1997

LIST OF AUTHORS QUOTED
Aldington R. Death of a Hero. M., 1958. Aldridge J. One Last Glimpse. Penguin Books, 1977. Anderson Wood P. A Five-Colour Buick. Bantam Books, 1975.

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