Лексикология

ВЫСШЕЕ ОБРАЗОВАНИЕ

 

Г.Б. Антрушина, О.В, Афанасьева, Н.Н. Морозова

 

Лексикология

Английского

Языка

 

English Lexicology

  Рекомендовано Министерством образования Российской Федерации в качестве учебного пособия для студентов высших учебных заведений, обучающихся по педагогическим специальностям

ББК 81.2Англ—3

А72

Антрушина Г. В., Афанасьева О. В., Морозова Н. Н.

ISBN 5—7107—4955—9   Учебное пособие включает разделы: предмет и задачи курса, этимологический состав и стилевые слои словарного состава…

ББК 81.2 Англ—3

 

ISBN 5—7107—4955—9 © ООО «Дрофа», 1999

Contents

CHAPTER 1. Which Word Should We Choose, Formal or Informal?..................... 9 CHAPTER 2. Which Word Should We Choose, Formal or Informal? (continued). 18 … CHAPTER 3. The Etymology of English Words. Are All English Words Really English? 30

Preface

In this book the reader will find the fundamentals of the word theory and of the main problems associated with English vocabulary, its… The book is intended for English language students at Pedagogical Universities… This book is the first attempt to embrace both the theory and practical exercises in the one volume, the two parts…

INTRODUCTION

  What's in a name? that which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet...

The Main Lexicological Problems

Two of these have already been underlined. The problemof word-building is associated with prevailing morphological word-structures and with… On the syntagmatic level, the semantic structure of the word is analysed in… On the paradigmatic level, the word is studied in its relationships with other words in the vocabulary system. So, a…

Consider your answers to the following.

1. In what way can one analyse a word a) socially, b) linguistically? 2. What are the structural aspects of the word? 3. What is the external structure of the word irresistible? What is the internal structure of this word?

CHAPTER 1

  Just as there is formal and informal dress, so there is formal and informal… The term functional style is generally accepted in modern linguistics. ProfessorI, V. Arnold defines it as "a…

Informal Style

Informal vocabulary is used in one's immediate circle: family, relatives or friends. One uses informal words when at home or when feeling at home. … Informal style is relaxed, free-and-easy, familiar and unpretentious. But it… Informal words and word-groups are traditionally divided into three types: colloquial, slang and dialect words and…

Colloquial Words

Among other informal words, colloquialisms are the least exclusive: they are used by everybody, and their sphere of communication is comparatively… Vast use of informal words is one of the prominent features of 20th century…  

Slang

 

Much has been written on the subject of slang that is contradictory and at the same time very interesting.

The Oxford English Dictionary defines slang as "language of a highly colloquial style, considered as below the level of standard educated speech, and consisting either of new words or of current words employed in some special sense." [33]

This definition is inadequate because it equates slang with colloquial style. The qualification "highly" can hardly serve as the criterion for distinguishing between colloquial style and slang.

Yet, the last line of the definition "current words in some special sense" is important and we shall have to return to this a little later.

Here is another definition of slang by the famous English writer G. K. Chesterton:

"The one stream of poetry which in constantly flowing is slang. Every day some nameless poet weaves some fairy tracery of popular language. ...All slang is metaphor, and all metaphor is poetry. ...The world of slang is a kind of topsy-turvydom of poetry, full of blue moons and white elephants, of men losing their heads, and men whose tongues run away with them — a whole chaos of fairy tales."[10]

The first thing that attracts attention in this enthusiastic statement is that the idioms which the author quotes have long since ceased being associated with slang: neither once in a blue moon, nor the white elephant, nor your tongue has run away with you are indicated as slang in modern dictionaries. This is not surprising, for slang words and idioms are short-lived and very soon either disappear or lose their peculiar colouring and become either colloquial or stylistically neutral lexical units.

As to the author's words "all slang is metaphor", it is a true observation, though the second part of the statement "all metaphor is poetry" is difficult to accept, especially if we consider the following examples: mug (for face), saucers, blinkers (for eyes), trap (for mouth, e. g. Keep your trap shut), dogs (for feet), to leg (it) (for to walk).

All these meanings are certainly based on metaphor, yet they strike one as singularly unpoetical.

Henry Bradley writes that "Slang sets things in their proper place with a smile. So, to call a hat 'a lid' and a head 'a nut' is amusing because it puts a hat and a pot-lid in the same class". [17] And, we should add, a head and a nut in the same class too.

"With a smile" is true. Probably "grin" would be a more suitable word. Indeed, a prominent linguist observed that if colloquialisms can be said to be wearing dressing-gowns and slippers, slang is wearing a perpetual foolish grin. The world of slang is inhabited by odd creatures indeed: not by men, but by guys (R. чучела) and blighters or rotters with nuts for heads, mugs for faces, flippers for hands.

All or most slang words are current words whose meanings have been metaphorically shifted. Each slang metaphor is rooted in a joke, but not in a kind or amusing joke. This is the criterion for distinguishing slang from colloquialisms: most slang words are metaphors and jocular, often with a coarse, mocking, cynical colouring.

This is one of the common objections against slang: a person using a lot of slang seems to be sneering and jeering at everything under the sun. This objection is psychological. There are also linguistic ones.

G. H. McKnight notes that "originating as slang expressions often do, in an insensibility to the meaning of legitimate words, the use of slang checks an acquisition of a command over recognized modes of expression ... and must result in atrophy of the faculty of using language". [34]

H. W. Fowler states that "as style is the great antiseptic, so slang is the great corrupting matter, it is perishable, and infects what is round it". [27]

McKnight also notes that "no one capable of good speaking or good writing is likely to be harmed by the occasional employment of slang, provided that he is conscious of the fact..." [34]

Then why do people use slang?

For a number of reasons. To be picturesque, arresting, striking and, above all, different from others. To avoid the tedium of outmoded hackneyed "common" words. To demonstrate one's spiritual independence and daring. To sound "modern" and "up-to-date".

It doesn't mean that all these aims are achieved by using slang. Nor are they put in so many words by those using slang on the conscious level. But these are the main reasons for using slang as explained by modern psychologists and linguists.

The circle of users of slang is more narrow than that of colloquialisms. It is mainly used by the young and uneducated. Yet, slang's colourful and humorous quality makes it catching, so that a considerable part of slang may become accepted by nearly all the groups of speakers.

Dialect Words

H. W. Fowler defines a dialect as "a variety of a language which prevails in a district, with local peculiarities of vocabulary, pronunciation… So dialects are regional forms of English. Standard English is defined by the… Dialectal peculiarities, especially those of vocabulary, are constantly being incorporated into everyday colloquial…

I. Consider your answers to the following.

1. What determines the choice of stylistically marked words in each particular situation? 2. In what situations are informal words used? 3. What are the main kinds of informal words? Give a brief description of each group.

III. a. Read the following extract.

A young man, Freddie by name, had invited a pretty young girl April to a riverside picnic. April could not come and sent her little sister to keep… It was naturally with something of a pang that Freddie tied the boat up at… ... Still, as the row had given him a nice appetite, he soon dismissed these wistful yearnings and started unpacking…

B. Write out the informal words and word-groups which occur in the above passage and explain why you think the author uses so many of them.

IV. Read the following jokes. Write out the informal words and word-groups and say whether they are colloquial, slang or dialect.

1. A Yankee passenger in an English train was beguiling his fellow passengers with tall stories1 and remarked: "We can start with a… This was too much for the burly Yorkshireman, who sat next to him. "Man,… 2. A driver and his family had gathered bluebells, primrose roots, budding twigs and so on from a country lane. Just…

V. Make up a dialogue using colloquial words from your lists and from the extracts given in the chapter.

 

a. In the first dialogue, two undergraduates are discussing why one of them has been expelled from his college. (Don't forget that young people use both literary and familiar colloquial words.)

b. In the second dialogue, the parents of the dismissed student are wondering what to do with him. (Older people, as you remember, are apt to be less informal in their choice of words.)

 

 

CHAPTER 2

Which Word Should We Choose, Formal or Informal? (continued)

 

Formal Style

 

We have already pointed out that formal style is restricted to formal situations. In general, formal words fall into two main groups: words associated with professional communication and a less exclusive group of so-called learned words.

Learned Words

These words are mainly associated with the printed page. It is in this vocabulary stratum that poetry and fiction find their main resources. The term "learned" is not precise and does not adequately describe… The term "learned" includes several heterogeneous subdivisions of words. We find here numerous words that…

Archaic and Obsolete Words

These words stand close to the "learned" words, particularly to the modes of poetic diction. Learned words and archaisms are both… Thou and thy, aye ("yes") and nay ("no") are certainly… Numerous archaisms can be found in Shakespeare, but it should be taken into consideration that what appear to us today…

Professional Terminology

Hundreds of thousands of words belong to special scientific, professional or trade terminological systems and are not used or even understood by… Term, as traditionally understood, is a word or a word-group which is… So, bilingual, interdental, labialization, palatalization, glottal stop, descending scale are terms of theoretical…

Basic Vocabulary

These words are stylistically neutral, and, in this respect, opposed to formal and informal words described above. Their stylistic neutrality makes… Certain of the stylistically marked vocabulary strata are, in a way,… The basic vocabulary is the central group of the vocabulary, its historical foundation and living core. That is why…

I. Consider your answers to the following.

1. Where are formal words used? 2. Are learned words used only in books? Which type of learned words, do you… 3. What are the principal characteristics of archaic words?

II. a. The italicized words and word-groups in the following extracts belong to formal style. Describe the stylistic peculiarities of each extract in general and say whether the italicized represents learned words, terms or archaisms. Look up unfamiliar words in the dictionary.

 

1. "Sir,

in re1 Miss Ernestina Freeman

We are instructed by Mr. Ernest Freeman, father of the above-mentioned Miss Ernestina Freeman, to request you to attend at these chambers at 3 o'clock this coming Friday. Your failure to attend will be regarded as an acknowledgement of our client's right to proceed."

(From The French Lieutenant's Woman by J. Fowles)

 

2. "I have, with esteemed advice ..." Mr. Aubrey bowed briefly towards the sergeant, ... "... prepared an admission of guilt. I should instruct you that My, Freeman's decision not to proceed immediately is most strictly contingent upon your client's signing, on this occasion and in our presence, and witnessed by all present, this document."

(Ibid.)

 

3. Romeo ... So shows a snowy dove trooping with crows,

 

As yonder lady o'er her fellows shows.

The measure1 done, I'll watch her place of stand,

And, touching hers, make blessed my rude hand.

Did my heart love till now? Forswear it, sight!

For I ne'er saw true beauty till this night.

 

Tybalt. This, by his voice should be a Montague.

 

Fetch me my rapier, boy. What! dares the slave

Come hither, cover'd with an antick face,

To fleer and scorn at our solemnity?

Now, by the stock and honour of my kin,

To strike him dead I hold it not a sin.

(From Romeo and Juliet by W. Shakespeare, Act1, Sc. 5)

 

4. "... I want you to keep an eye on that air-speed indicator. Remember that an airplane stays in the air because of its forward speed. If you let the speed drop too low, it stalls — and falls out of the air. Any time the ASI shows a reading near 120, you tell George instantly. Is that clear?" "Yes, Captain. I understand." "Back to you, George... I want you to unlock the autopilot — it's clearly marked on the control column — and take the airplane yourself. ... George, you watch the artificial horizon ... Climb and descent indicator should stay at zero."

(From Runway Zero-Eight by A. Hailey, J. Castle)

 

5. Mr. Claud Gurney's production of The Taming of the Shrew shows a violent ingenuity. He has learnt much from Mr. Cochran; there is also a touch of Hammersmith in his ebullient days. The speed, the light, the noise, the deployment of expensively coloured figures ...amuse the senses and sometimes divert the mind from the unfunny brutality of the play, which evokes not one natural smile.

(From a theatrical review)

 

6. Arthur: Jack! Jack! Where's the stage manager?

Jасk: Yes, Mr. Gosport?

Arthur: The lighting for this scene has gone mad.

This isn't our plot. There's far too much light. What's gone wrong with it?

Jack: I think the trouble is they have crept in numbers two and three too early. (Calling up to the flies). Will, check your plot, please. Number two and three spots should be down to a quarter instead of full.... And .you've got your floats too high, too.

(From Harlequinade by T. Rattigan)

 

7. It was none other than Grimes, the Utility outsider, Connie had been forced to use in the last game because of the injury to Joyce — Grimes whose miraculous catch in the eleventh inning had robbed Parker of home run, and whose own homer — a fluky one — had given the Athletics another World's Championship.

(From Short Stories by R. Lardner)

b. Make up lists from the italicized words classifying them Heto: A. learned: 1) officialese, 2) literary; B. terms (subdivide them into groups and state to what professional activity each belongs); C. archaic words.

III.a. Make up a list of literary learned words selected from the following.

1. Absent, he was still unescapably with her, like a guilty conscience. Her solitudes were endless meditations on the theme of him. Sometimes the… (From Brief Candles by A. Huxley)  

B. Make up a list of learned words used in the extract from the work written by P. G. Wodehouse (page 30). Point out the lines in which the incongruity of formal and informal elements used together produces a humorous effect.

IV. Read the following jokes. Look up the italicized words in the dictionary (unless you know their meanings) and prove that they are professional terms. State to which sphere of human activity they belong. On what is the humour based in each of the jokes?

1. A sailor was called into the witness-box to give evidence.

"Well, sir," said the lawyer, "do you know the plaintiff and defendant?”

"I don't know the drift of them words," answered the sailor.

"What! Not know the meaning of "plaintiff" and "defendant?" continued the lawyer. "A pretty fellow you to come here as a witness! Can you tell me where on board the ship the man struck the other?"

"Abaft the binnacle," said the sailor.

"Abaft the binnacle?" said the lawyer. "What do you mean by that?"

"A pretty fellow you," responded the sailor, "to come here as a lawyer, and don't know what "abaft the binnacle" means!"

 

2. "Where did the car hit him?" asked the coroner.

"At the junction of the dorsal and cervical vertebrae," replied the medical witness.

The burly foreman rose from his seat.

"Man and boy, I've lived in these parts for fifty years," he protested ponderously, "and I have never heard of the place."

3. The doctor's new secretary, a conscientious girl, was puzzled by an entry in the doctor's notes on an emergency case: "Shot in the lumbar region," it read. After a moment she brightened and, in the interest of clarity, typed into the record: "Shot in the woods".

V. Revise your lists of formal and informal words and the examples given in Ch. 1 and 2, and compose the following brief situations. Your style should suit both the subject and the situation.

 

a. A short formal letter to a Mrs. Gray, a distant acquaintance, in which you tell her that you cannot accept her invitation to a party. Explain the reason.

b. An informal letter on the same subject to an intimate friend.

c. A conversation between two students discussing a party they both attended and the friends they met there.

d. A similar conversation between two much older, very prim and proper ladies.

e. A short review on a theatrical production or film.

f. A discussion between two teenagers about the same play or film.

 

CHAPTER 3

The Etymology of English Words.1

  As a matter of fact, they are — if we regard them in the light of present-day… It is true that English vocabulary, which is one of the most extensive amongst the world's languages contains an…

I. Latin Affixes

II. French Affixes

  Notes. 1. The tables represent only the most typical and frequent structural… 2. Though all the affixes represented in the tables are Latin or French borrowings, some of the examples given in the…

The Etymological Structure of English Vocabulary

  The table requires some explanation. Firstly, it should be pointed out that… On a straight vocabulary count, considering the high percentage of borrowed words, one would have to classify English…

I. Consider your answers to the following.

1. How can you account for the fact that English vocabulary contains such an immense number of words of foreign origin? 2. What is the earliest group of English borrowings? Date it. 3. What Celtic borrowings are there in English? Date them.

A) Indo-european, b) Germanic, c) English proper.

 

Daughter, woman, room, land, cow, moon, sea, red, spring, three, I, lady, always, goose, bear, fox, lord, tree, nose, birch, grey, old, glad, daisy, heart, hand, night» to eat, to see, to make.

 

III. Read the following jokes. Explain the etymology of the italicized words. If necessary consult a dictionary.1

1. He dropped around to the girl's house and as he ran up the steps he was confronted by her little brother. "Hi, Billy." "Hi," said the brat.

IV. Identify the period of the following Latin borrowings; point out the structural and semantic peculiarities of the words from each period.

 

Wall, cheese, intelligent, candle, major, moderate, priest, school, street, cherry, music, phenomenon, nun, kitchen, plum, pear, pepper, datum, cup, status, wine, philosophy, method.

V. In the following sentences find examples of Latin borrowings; identify the period of borrowings.

1. The garden here consisted of a long smooth lawn with two rows of cherry trees planted in the grass. 2. They set to pork-pies, cold potatoes,… VI. Study the map of Great Britain and write out the games of the cities and…

VII. Study the map of Great Britain and find the names of places, rivers and hills of Celtic origin.

    1. He went on to say that he was sorry to hear that I had been ill. 2. She was wearing a long blue skirt and a white…

IX. Read the following jokes and identify the Scandinavian borrowings.

1. "Very sorry, Mr. Brown, but the coffee is exhausted," the landlady announced. "Not at all surprised," came back Mr. Brown. "I've seen it…  

X. Copy out the examples of Norman and Parisian borrowings from the following passage. Describe the structural peculiarities of these words.

1. It was while they were having coffee that a waitress brought a message to their table. 2.1 knew nothing about the film world and imagined it to…   XI. Read the following extract. Which of the italicized borrowings came from Latin and which from French?

XII. Explain the etymology of the following words.

 

Sputnik, kindergarten, opera, piano, potato, tomato, droshky, czar, violin, coffee, cocoa, colonel, alarm, cargo, blitzkrieg, steppe, komsomol, banana, balalaika.

XIII. Think of 10—15 examples of Russian borrowings in English and English borrowings in Russian.

 

XIV. Read the following text. Identify the etymology of as many words as you can.

The Roman Occupation

(From 1066 and All That by C. W. Sellar, R. J. Yeatman)  

CHAPTER 4

  Why Are Words Borrowed?  

International Words

It is often the case that a word is borrowed by several languages, and not just by one. Such words usually convey concepts which are significant in… Many of them are of Latin and Greek origin. Most names of sciences are… It is quite natural that political terms frequently occur in the international group of borrowings: politics, policy,…

Etymological Doublets

The words shirt and skirt etymologically descend from the same root. Shirt is a native word, and skirt (as the initial sk suggests) is a… Such words as these two originating from the same etymological source, but… They may enter the vocabulary by different routes Some of these pairs, like shirt and skirt, consist of £ native…

Translation-Loans

The term loan-word is equivalent to borrowing. By translation-loans we indicate borrowings of a special kind. They are not taken into the vocabulary… The Russian колхоз was borrowed twice, by way of translation-loan (collective… The case is not unique. During the 2nd World War the German word Blitzkrieg was also borrowed into English in two…

III. Explain the etymology of the italicized words; identify the stage of assimilation.

1. Obviously, chere madame, the thief would take care to recover the money before he returned the dog. 2. Heyward went to the kitchen for a glass of…   IV. State the origin of the following etymological doublets. Compare their meanings and explain why they are called…

V. In the following sentences find one of a pair of etymological doublets and name the missing member of the pair.

1.1 led Mars (a dog) into the shadow of the building and looked around me. 2. "Unreliable", he said, "those fancy locks. Always… VI. Classify the following borrowings according to the sphere of human…  

VII. Read the following text. Copy out the international words. State to what sphere of human activity they belong.

British Dramatists   In the past 20 years there has been a considerable increase in the number of new playwrights in Britain and this has…

VIII. Read the following jokes. Identify examples of international words.

1. Genius is one percent inspiration and ninety-nine percent perspiration. 2. A psychologist is a man who watches everybody rise when a beautiful…

IX. State the origin of the following translation-loans. Give more examples.

Five-year plan, wonder child, masterpiece, first dancer, collective farm, fellow-traveller. X. What is the difference between the words in the following pairs? Analyse…  

XI. Supply the adjectives of Latin origin corresponding to the following nouns. Comment upon their stylistic characteristics.

 

Nose, tooth, sun, hand, child, town, sea, life, youth.

 

XII. Describe the etymology of the following words. Comment upon their stylistic characteristics. If necessary use an etymological dictionary.

 

To rise — to mount — to ascend, to ask — to question -— to interrogate, fire — flame — conflagration, fear — terror — trepidation, holy — sacred — consecrated, time — age — era, goodness — virtue ~ Probity.

 

XIII. Read the following extract. State the etymology of the italicized words. Comment upon their stylistic characteristics.

The Oxford accent exists, but it defies definition. If is not, as the French think, the kind of English which is spoken within a twenty mile radius…   XIV. Read the following text. What words were borrowed into English during the period described in it? Describe the…

CHAPTER 5

How English Words Are Made. Word-Building1

Before turning to the various processes of making words, it would be useful to analyse the related problem of the composition of words, i. e. of… If viewed structurally, words appear to be divisible into smaller units which… All morphemes are subdivided into two large classes: roots (or radicals} and affixes. The latter, in their turn, fall…

Affixation

The process of affixation consists in coining a new word by adding an affix or several affixes to some root morpheme. The role of the affix in this… From the etymological point of view affixes are classified into the same two… Some Native Suffixes1

Some Productive Affixes

  Note. Examples are given only for the affixes which are not listed in the…

Some Non-Productive Affixes

  Note. The native noun-forming suffixes -dom and -ship ceased to be productive…

Semantics of Affixes

The morpheme, and therefore affix, which is a type of morpheme, is generally defined as the smallest indivisible component of the word possessing a… Such examples might lead one to the somewhat hasty conclusion that the meaning… There are numerous derived words whose meanings can really be easily deduced from the meanings of their constituent…

I. Consider your answers to the following.

1. What are the main ways of enriching the English vocabulary? 2. What are the principal productive ways of word-building in English? 3. What do we mean by derivation?

A. Those formed with the help of productive affixes.

B. Those formed with the help of non-productive affixes. Explain the etymology of each borrowed affix.

"Won't you have something more, Willie?" the hostess said. "No, thank you," replied Willie, with an expression of great… "Well, then," smiled the hostess, "put some delicious fruit and cakes in your pocket to eat on the way…

III. Write out from any five pages of the book you are reading examples which illustrate borrowed and native affixes in the tables in Ch. 3 and 5. Comment on their productivity.

IV. Explain the etymology and productivity of the affixes given below. Say what parts of speech can be formed with their help.

-ness, -ous, -ly, -y, -dom, -ish, -tion, -ed, -en, -ess, -or, -er, -hood, -less, -ate, -ing, -al, -ful, un-, re-, im (in)-, dis-, over-, ab- V. Write out from the book yon are reading all the words with the… VI. Deduce the meanings of the following derivatives from the meanings of their constituents. Explain your deduction.…

VII. In the following examples the italicized words are formed from the same root by means of different affixes. Translate these derivatives into Russian and explain the Difference in meaning.

 

1. a) Sallie is the most amusing person in the world — and Julia Pendleton the least so. b) Ann was wary, but amused. 2. a) He had a charming smile, almost womanish in sweetness, b) I have kept up with you through Miss Pittypat but she gave me no information that you had developed womanly sweetness. 3. a) I have been having a delightful and entertaining conversation with my old chum, Lord Wisbeach. b) Thanks for your invitation. I'd be delighted to come. 4. a) Sally thinks everything is funny — even flunking — and Julia is bored at everything. She never makes the slightest effort to be pleasant, b) — Why are you going to America? — To make my fortune, I hope. — How pleased your father will be if you do. 5. a) Long before |he reached the brownstone house... the first fine careless rapture of his mad outbreak had passed from Jerry Mitchell, leaving nervous apprehension in its place. b) If your nephew has really succeeded in his experiments you should be awfully careful. 6. a) The trouble with college is that you are expected to know such a lot of things you've never learned. It's very confusing at times. b) That platform was a confused mass of travellers, porters, baggage, trucks, boys with magazines, friends, relatives. 7. a) At last I decided that even this rather mannish efficient woman could do with a little help. b) He was only a boy not a man yet, but he spoke in a manly way. 8. a) The boy's respectful manner changed noticeably. b) It may be a respectable occupation, but it Sounds rather criminal to me. 9. a) "Who is leading in the pennant race?" said this strange butler in a feverish whisper, b) It was an idea peculiarly suited to her temperament, an idea that she might have suggested her. self if she had thought of it ...this idea of his fevered imagination. 10. Dear Daddy-Long-Legs. You only wanted to hear from me once a month, didn't you? And I've been peppering you with letters every few days! But I've been so excited about all these new adventures that I must talk to somebody... Speaking of classics, have you ever read Hamlet? If you haven't, do it right off. It's perfectly exciting. I've been hearing about Shakespeare all my life but I had no idea he really wrote so well, I always suspected him of going largerly on his reputation. (J. Webster)1

VIII. Explain the difference between the meanings of the following words produced from the same root by means of different affixes. Translate the words into Russian.

 

Watery — waterish, embarrassed — embarrassing. manly — mannish, colourful — coloured, distressed — distressing, respected — respectful — respectable, exhaustive — exhausting — exhausted, bored — boring, touchy — touched — touching.

IX. Find eases of conversion in the following sentences.

1. The clerk was eyeing him expectantly. 2. Under the cover of that protective din he was able to toy with a steaming dish which his waiter had… X. One of the italicized words in the following examples |!was made from the…  

XI. Explain the semantic correlations within the following pairs of words.

Shelter — to shelter, park — to park, groom — to groom, elbow — to elbow, breakfast — to breakfast, pin — to pin, trap — to trap, fish — to fish,… XII. Which of the two words in the following pairs is made by conversion?…   star, n. — to star, v. picture, n. — to picture, v. colour, n. — to colour, v. blush,…

XIII. Read the following joke, explain the type of word-building in the italicized words and say everything you can about the way they were made.

"I had just installed myself in my office, had put in a phone, when, through the glass of my door I saw a shadow. It was doubtless my first… 'Yes, Mr. S!' I was saying as the stranger entered the office. 'I'll attend to… Being sure, then, that I had duly impressed my prospective client, I hung up the receiver and turned to him.

CHAPTER 6

How English Words Are Made. Word-Building (continued)

 

Composition

This type of word-building, in which new words are produced by combining two or more stems, is one of the three most productive types in Modern… There are at least three aspects of composition that present special… The first is the structural aspect. Compounds are not homogeneous in structure. Traditionally three types are…

Semi-Affixes

Consider the following examples. "... The Great Glass Elevator is shockproof, waterproof, bombproof,… (From Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator by R. Dahl)

Shortening (Contraction)

This comparatively new way of word-building has achieved a high degree of productivity nowadays, especially in American English. Shortenings (or contracted/curtailed words) are produced in two different… The second way of shortening is to make a new word from the initial letters of a word group: U.N.O. Падай] from the…

Some of the Minor Types of Modern Word-Building.

Sound-Imitation (Onomatopoeia1)

Words coined by this interesting type of word-building are made by imitating different kinds of sounds that may be produced by animals, birds,… It is of some interest that sounds produced by the same kind of animal are… Some names of animals and especially of birds and insects are also produced by sound-imitation: crow, cuckoo,…

Reduplication

In reduplication new words are made by doubling a stem, either without any phonetic changes as in bye-bye (coil, for good-bye} or with a variation… This type of word-building is greatly facilitated in Modern English by the… In a modern novel an angry father accuses his teenager son of doing nothing but dilly-dallying all over the town.

Back-Formation (Reversion)

The earliest examples of this type of word-building are the verb to beg that was made from the French borrowing beggar, to burgle from burglar, to… Later examples of back-formation are to butle from butler, to baby-sit from…  

I. Consider your answers to the following.

1. What is understood by composition? What do we call words made by this type of word-building? 2. Into what groups and subgroups can compounds be subdivided structurally?… 3. Which types of composition are productive in Modern English? How can this be demonstrated?

A. Simple neutral compounds. B. Neutral derived compounds. C. Neutral contracted compounds.

An air-conditioned hall; a glass-walled room; to fight against H-bomb; a loud revolver-shot; a high-pitched voice; a heavy topcoat; a car's… IV. Arrange the italicized compounds in the following extracts into two groups: A. Idiomatic compounds. B.…

V. Arrange the compounds given below into two groups;

A. Idiomatic. B. Non-idiomatie. Say whether the semantic change within idiomatic compounds is partial or total. Consult the dictionary if necessary.

 

Light-hearted, adj.; butterfly, n.; homebody, n.; cabman, п.; medium-sized, adj.; blackberry, п.; bluebell, п.; good-for-nothing, adj.; wolf-dog, п.; highway, n.; dragonfly, n.; looking-glass, n.; greengrocer, n.; bluestocking, n.; gooseberry, n.; necklace, n.; earthquake, n.; lazy-bones, n.

VI. Identify the compounds in the word-groups below. Say as much as you can about their structure and semantics.

 

Emily, our late maid-of-all-work; a heavy snowfall; an automobile salesman; corn-coloured chiffon; vehicle searchlights, little tidbit2 in The Afro-American;3 German A. A. fire;4 a born troubleshooter; to disembark a stowaway,5 an old schoolmate; a cagelike crate; a slightly stoop-shouldered man; a somewhat matter-of-fact manner; a fur-lined boot; to pick forget-me-nots and lilies-of-the-valley; a small T-shirt; a sportscar agency.

VII. Say whether the following lexical units are word-groups or compounds. Apply the criteria outlined in the foregoing text to motivate your answer.

 

Railway platform, snowman, light dress, traffic light, railway station, landing field, film star, white man, hungry dog, medical man, landing plane, top hat, distant star, small house, green light, evening dress, top student, bluecoat,1 roughhouse,2 booby trap;3 black skirt, medical student, hot dog, blue dress, U-shaped trap, black shirt4.

VIII. Find shortenings in the jokes and extracts given below and specify the method of their formation.

1. Brown: But, Doc, I got bad eyes! Doctor: Don't worry. We'll put you up front.5 You won't miss a thing.   2. "How was your guard duty yesterday, Tom?"

X. Define the particular type of word-building process by which the following words were made and say as much as you can about them.

 

A mike; to babysit; to buzz; a torchlight; homelike; theatrical; old-fashioned; to book; unreasonable; SALT;5 Anglo-American; to murmur; a pub; to dillydally; okay; eatable; a make; a greenhorn;6 posish; a dress coat;7 to bang; merry-go-round; H-bag; B.B.C.; thinnish; to blood-transfuse; a go; to quack; M.P.; to thunder; earthquake; D-region8; fatalism; a find.

XI. Read the following extract. Consider the italicized words in respect of a) word-building, b) etymology and say everything you know about each of them.

 

Dear Kind-Trustee-Who-Sends-Orphans-to-College,9

Here I am! I travelled yesterday for four hours in a train. It's a funny sensation, isn't it? I never rode in one before.

College is the biggest, most bewildering place. I get lost whenever I leave my room.

I love college and I love you for sending me — I'm very, very happy, and so excited every moment of the time, that I can hardly sleep. You can't imagine how different it is from the John Grier Home. I never dreamed there was such a place in the world. I'm feeling sorry for everybody who isn't a girl and who can't come here, I am sure the college you attended when you were a boy couldn't have been so nice.

My room is up in a tower. There are three other girls on the same floor of the tower — a Senior who wears spectacles and is always asking us please to be a little more quiet, and two Freshmen named Sallie McBride and Julia Rutledge Pendleton. Sallie has red hair and a turn-up nose and is quite friendly; Julia comes from one of the first families in New York and hasn't noticed me yet. They room together and the Senior and I have singles.

Usually Freshmen can't get singles; they are very few, but I got one without even asking. I suppose the register didn't think it would be right to ask a. properly brought up girl to room with a foundling. You see there are advantages.

(From Daddy-Long-Legs by J. Webster)

 

 

CHAPTER 7

  Language is the amber in which a thousand precious and subtle

Polysemy. Semantic Structure of the Word

The semantic structure of the word does not present an indissoluble unity (that is, actually, why it is referred to as "structure"), nor… Two somewhat naive but frequently asked questions may arise in connection with… 1. Is polysemy an anomaly or a general rule in English vocabulary?

II III

 

 

I

	Any kind of barrier to prevent people from passing.

 

Meanings II and III have no logical links with one another whereas each separately is easily associated with meaning I: meaning II through the traditional barrier dividing a court-room into two parts; meaning III through the counter serving as a kind of barrier between the customers of a pub and the barman.

Yet, it is not in every polysemantic word that such a centre can be found. Some semantic structures are arranged on a different principle. In the following list of meanings of the adjective dull one can hardly hope to find a generalized meaning covering and holding together the rest of the semantic structure.

Dull,adj.

 

I. Uninteresting, monotonous, boring; e. g. a dull book, a dull film.

II. Slow in understanding, stupid; e. g. a dull student.

III. Not clear or bright; e. g. dull weather, a dull day, a dull colour.

IV. Not loud or distinct; e. g. a dull sound.

V. Not sharp; e. g. a dull knife.

VI. Not active; e. g. Trade is dull.

VII. Seeing badly; e. g. dull eyes (arch.). VIII. Hearing badly; e. g. dull ears (arch.).

Yet, one distinctly feels that there is something that all these seemingly miscellaneous meanings have in common, and that is the implication of deficiency, be it of colour (m. Ill), wits (m. II), interest (m. I), sharpness (m. V), etc. The implication of insufficient quality, of something lacking, can be clearly distinguished in each separate meaning.

In fact, each meaning definition in the given scheme can be subjected to a transformational operation to prove the point.

 

Dull, adj.

I. Uninteresting ——> deficient in interest or excitement.

II. ... Stupid ——> deficient in intellect.

III. Not bright ——> deficient in light or colour.

IV. Not loud ——> deficient in sound.

V. Not sharp ——> deficient in sharpness.

VI. Not active ——> deficient in activity.

VII. Seeing badly ——> deficient in eyesight.

VIII. Hearing badly ——> deficient in hearing.

 

The transformed scheme of the semantic structure of dull clearly shows that the centre holding together the complex semantic structure of this word is not one of the meanings but a certain component that can be easily singled out within each separate meaning.

This brings us to the second level of analysis of the semantic structure of a word. The transformational operation with the meaning definitions of dull reveals something very significant: the semantic structure of the word is "divisible", as it were, not only at the level of different meanings but, also, at a deeper level.

Each separate meaning seems to be subject to structural analysis in which it may be represented as sets of semantic components. In terms of componential analysis, one of the modern methods of semantic research, the meaning of a word is defined as a set of elements of meaning which are not part of the vocabulary of the language itself, but rather theoretical elements, postulated in order to describe the semantic relations between the lexical elements of a given language.

The scheme of the semantic structure of dull shows that the semantic structure of a word is not a mere system of meanings, for each separate meaning is subject to further subdivision and possesses an inner structure of its own.

Therefore, the semantic structure of a word should be investigated at both these levels: a) of different meanings, b) of semantic components within each separate meaning. For a monosemantic word (i. e. a word with one meaning) the first level is naturally excluded.

Types of Semantic Components

The leading semantic component in the semantic structure of a word is usually termed denotative component (also, the term referential component may… The following list presents denotative components of some English adjectives… Denotative components

Meaning and Context

In the beginning of the paragraph entitled "Polysemy" we discussed the advantages and disadvantages of this linguistic phenomenon. One of…   Customer. I would like a book, please.

I. Consider your answers to the following.

1. What is understood by "semantics"? Explain the term "polysemy". 2. Define polysemy as a linguistic phenomenon. Illustrate your answer with… 3. What are the two levels of analysis in investigating the semantic structure of a word?

II. Define the meanings of the words in the following sentences. Say how the meanings of the same word are associated one with another.

1.I walked into Hyde Park, fell flat upon the grass and almost immediately fell asleep. 2. a) 'Hello', I said, and thrust my hand through the bars,…

III. Copy out the following pairs of words grouping together the ones which represent the same meaning of each word. Explain the different meanings and the different usages, giving reasons for your answer. Use dictionaries if necessary.

smart, adj.

smart clothes, a smart answer, a smart house, a smart garden, a smart repartee, a smart officer, a smart blow, a smart punishment

stubborn, adj.

a stubborn child, a stubborn look, a stubborn horse, stubborn resistance, a stubborn fighting, a stubborn cough, stubborn depression

sound, adj.

sound lungs, a sound scholar, a sound tennis-player, sound views, sound advice, sound criticism, a sound ship, a sound whipping

 

roof, n.

edible roots, the root of the tooth, the root of the matter, the root of all evil, square root, cube root

perform, v.

to perform one's duty, to perform an operation, to perform a dance, to perform a play

kick, v.

to kick the ball, to kick the dog, to kick off one's slippers, to kick smb. downstairs

IV. The verb "to take" is highly polysemantic in Modern English. On which meanings of the verb are the following jokes based? Give your own examples to illustrate the other meanings of the word.

 

1. "Where have you been for the last four years?" "At college taking medicine." "And did you finally get well?"

 

2. "Doctor, what should a woman take when she is run down?"

"The license number, madame, the license number."

 

3.Proctor (exceedingly angry): So you confess that this unfortunate Freshman was carried to this frog pond and drenched. Now what part did you take in this disgraceful affair?

Sophomore (meekly): The right leg, sir.

V. Explain the basis for the following jokes. Use the dictionary when in doubt.

1. Caller: I wonder if I can see your mother, little boy. Is she engaged9 Willie: Engaged! She's married.  

VI. Choose any polysemantic word that is well-known to you and illustrate its meanings with examples of your own. Prove that the meanings are related one to another.

VII. Read the following jokes. Analyse the collocability of the italicized words and state its relationship with the meaning.

1. Ladу (at party): Where is that pretty maid who was passing our cocktails a while ago? Hostess: Oh, you are looking for a drink? Lady: No, I'm looking for my husband.

VIII. Try your hand at being a lexicographer. Write simple definitions to illustrate as many meanings as possible for the following polysemantic words. After you have done it, check your results using a dictionary.

 

Face, heart, nose, smart, to lose.

 

IX. Try your hand at the following research work.

 

A. Illustrate the semantic structure of one of the following words with a diagram; use the dictionary if necessary.

 

Foot, п.; hand, п.; ring, п.; stream, n.; warm, adj.; green, adj.; sail, n.; key, n.; glass, п.; eye, n.

B. Identify the denotative and connotative elements of the meanings in the following pairs of words.

 

To conceal — to disguise, to choose — to select, to draw — to paint, money — cash, photograph — picture, odd — queer.

 

c. Read the entries for the English word "court" and the Russian "суд" in an English-Russian and Russian-English dictionary. Explain the differences in the semantic structure of both words.

 

CHAPTER 8

How Words Develop New Meanings

It has been mentioned that the systems of meanings of polysemantic words evolve gradually. The older a word is, the better developed is its semantic… In this chapter we shall have a closer look at the complicated processes by… There are two aspects to this problem, which can be generally described in the following way: a) Why should new…

Causes of Development of New Meanings

The first group of causes is traditionally termed historical or extra-linguistic. Different kinds of changes in a nation's social life, in its culture,… making new words (word-building) and borrowing foreign ones. One more way of filling such vocabulary gaps is by…

The Process of Development and Change of Meaning

The second question we must answer in this chapter is how new meanings develop. To find the answer to this question we must investigate the inner… Why was it that the word mill — and not some other word — was selected to… Stalls and box formed their meanings in which they denoted parts of the theatre on the basis of a different type of…

Transference Based on Resemblance (Similarity)

This type of transference is also referred to as linguistic metaphor. A new meaning appears as a result of associating two objects (phenomena,… Other examples can be given in which transference is also based on the… The noun drop (mostly in the plural form) has, in addition to its main meaning "a small particle of water or…

Transference Based on Contiguity

Another term for this type of transference is linguistic metonymy. The association is based upon subtle psychological links between different… Let us consider some cases of transference based on contiguity. You will… The Old English adjective glad meant "bright, shining" (it was applied to the sun, to gold and precious…

Broadening (or Generalization) of Meaning.

Narrowing (or Specialization) of Meaning

Sometimes, the process of transference may result in a considerable change in range of meaning. For instance, the verb to arrive (French borrowing)… Another example of the broadening of meaning is pipe. Its earliest recorded… The word bird changed its meaning from "the young of a bird" to its modern meaning through transference…

I. Consider your answers to the following.

 

1. What causes the development of new meanings? Give examples.

2. What is the basis of development or change of meaning? Explain what we mean by the term transference.

3. What types of transference can you name?

4. What is meant by the widening and the narrowing of meaning?

5. Give examples of the so-called "degradation" and "elevation" of meaning. Why are these terms imprecise?

II. Read the following extracts and explain the semantic processes by which the italicized words acquired their meanings

1. 'Bureau', a desk, was borrowed from French in the 17thc. In Modern French (and English) it means not only the desk but also the office itself and… (From The Romance of Words by E. Weekley)  

IV. Explain the logical associations in the following groups of meaning for the same words. Define the type of transference which has taken place.

1. The wing of a bird — the wing of a building; the eye of a man — the eye of a needle; the hand of a child — the hand of a clock; the heart of a… 2. Green grass — green years; black shoes — black despair; nickel (metal) — a…  

V. Analyse the process of development of new meanings in the italicized words in the examples given below.

1.I put the letter well into the mouth of the box and let it go and it fell turning over and over like an autumn leaf. 2. Those v/ho had been the…

VI. Explain the basis for the following jokes. Trace the logical associations between the different meanings of the same word.

1. Father was explaining to his little son the fundamentals of astronomy. "That's a comet." "A what?"

VII. In the examples given below identify the eases of widening and narrowing of meaning.

1. While the others waited the elderly executive filled his pipe and lit it. 2. Finn was watching the birds. 3. The two girls took hold of one… VIII. Have the italicized words evaluative connotations in their meanings?…  

CHAPTER 9

Homonyms:

Words of the Same Form

Homonyms are words which are identical in sound and spelling, or, at least, in one of these aspects, but different in their meaning.   E. g. bank, n. — a shore

Sources of Homonyms

One source of homonyms has already been mentioned: phonetic changes which words undergo in the course of their historical development. As a result… Night and knight, for instance, were not homonyms in Old English as the… In Old English the verb to write had the form writan, and the adjective right had the forms reht, riht. The noun sea…

Classification of Homonyms

The subdivision of homonyms into homonyms proper, homophones and homographs is certainly not precise enough and does not reflect certain important… Accordingly, Professor A. I. Smirnitsky classified homonyms into two large… Full lexical homonyms are words which represent the same category of parts of speech and have the same paradigm.

I. Consider your answers to the following.

1. Which words do we call homonyms? 2. Why can't homonyms be regarded as expressive means of the language? 3. What is the traditional classification of homonyms? Illustrate your answer with examples.

II. Find the homonyms in the following extracts. Classify them into homonyms proper, homographs and homophones.

1. "Mine is a long and a sad tale!" said the Mouse, turning to Alice, and sighing. "It is a long tail, certainly," said Alice,… III. On what linguistic phenomenon is the joke in the following extracts…  

IV. a. Find the homonyms proper for the following words; give their Russian equivalents.

1. bared — a company of musicians. 2. seal — a warm-blooded, fish-eating sea-animal, found chiefly in cold regions. 3. ear — the grain-bearing spike…  

B. Find the homophones to the following words, translate them into Russian or explain their meanings in English.

 

Heir, dye, cent, tale, sea, week, peace, sun, meat, steel, knight, sum, coarse, write, sight, hare.

 

C. Find the homographs to the following words and transcribe both.

1. To bow — to bend the head or body. 2. wind — air in motion. 3. to tear— to pull apart by force. 4. to desert -— to go away from a person or… V. a. Classify the following italicized homonyms. Use Professor A. I.…  

B. Explain the homonyms which form the basis for the following jokes. Classify the types as in part a.

1. An observing man claims to have discovered the colour of the wind. He says he went out and found it blew. 2. Child: Mummy, what makes the Tower of Pisa lean? Fat mother: I have no idea, dear, or I'd take some myself.

VII. Explain how the following italicized words became homonyms.

1. a) Eliduc's overlord was the king of Brittany, who was very fond of the knight, b) "I haven't slept a wink all night, my eyes just wouldn't…   VIII. Do the following italicized words represent homonyms or polysemantic words? Explain reasons for your answers. …

A) etymology, b) word-building, c) homonymy.

 

A boy came home with torn clothes, his hair full of dust and his face bearing marks of a severe conflict.

"Oh, Willie," said his mother. "You disobeyed me again. You must not play with that Smith boy. He is a bad boy".

"Ma," said Willie, washing the blood from his nose, "do I look as if I had been playing with anybody?"

A) etymology, b) word-building, c) stylistic characteristics

"But I love the Italians," continued Mrs. Blair. "They are so obliging — though even that has its embarrassing side. You ask them the… (From The Man in the Brown Suit by A. Christie)

A) stylistic characteristics, b) semantics, e) word-building.

Once in the driving seat, with reins handed to him, and blinking over his pale old cheeks in the full sunlight, he took a slow look round. Adolf was… (From The Forsyte Saga. by J. Galsworthy)

A) homonymy, b) word-building.

 

Soames arrived on the stroke of time, and took his seat alongside the Board, who, in a row, each Director behind his own inkpot, faced their Shareholders.

In the centre of this row old Jolyon, conspicuous in his black, tightly-buttoned frock-coat and his white moustaches, was leaning back with finger-tips crossed on a copy of the Directors' report and accounts.

(Ibid.)

 

CHAPTER 10

Are Their Meanings the Same or Different?   Synonymy is one of modern linguistics' most controversial problems. The very existence of words traditionally called…

Criteria of Synonymy

Synonymy is associated with some theoretical problems which at present are still an object of controversy. Probably, the most controversial among… Traditional linguistics solved this problem with the conceptual criterion and… Some aspects of this definition have been criticized. It has been pointed out that linguistic phenomena should be…

The common denotation convincingly shows that, according to the semantic criterion, the words grouped in the above table are synonyms. The connotative components represented on the right side of the table highlight their differentiations.

In modern research on synonymsthe criterion of interchangeability is sometimes applied. According to this, synonyms are defined as words which are interchangeable at least in some contexts without any considerable alteration in denotational meaning.[4]

This criterion of interchangeability has been much criticized. Every or almost every attempt to apply it to this or that group of synonyms seems to lead one to the inevitable conclusion that either there are very few synonyms or, else, that they are not interchangeable.

It is sufficient to choose any set of synonyms placing them in a simple context to demonstrate the point. Let us take, for example, the synonyms from the above table.

 

Cf.: He glared at her (i. e. He looked at her angrily).

He gazed at her (i. e. He looked at her steadily and attentively; probably with admiration or interest).

He glanced at her (i. e. He looked at her briefly and turned away).

He peered at her (i. e. He tried to see her better, but something prevented: darkness, fog, weak eyesight).

 

These few simple examples are sufficient to show that each of the synonyms creates an entirely new situation which so sharply differs from the rest that any attempt at "interchanging" anything can only destroy the utterance devoiding it of any sense at all.

If you turn back to the extracts on p. 184—187, the very idea of interchangeability will appear even more incredible. Used in this way, in a related context, all these words(Ilike you, but I cannotlove you; the young man wasstrolling, and his child wastrottingby his side; Romeo shouldsmile, notgrin, etc.) clearly demonstrate that substitution of one word for another is impossible: it is not simply the context that firmly binds them in their proper places, but the peculiar individual connotative structure of each individual word.

Consequently, it is difficult to accept interchange-ability as a criterion of synonymy because the specific characteristic of synonyms, and the one justifying their very existence, is that they are not, cannot and should not be interchangeable, in which case they would simply become useless ballast in the vocabulary.

Synonyms are frequently said to be the vocabulary's colours, tints and hues (so the term shade is not so inadequate, after all, for those who can understand a metaphor). Attempts at ascribing to synonyms the quality of interchangeability are equal to stating that subtle tints in a painting can be exchanged without destroying the picture's effect.

All this does not mean that no synonyms are interchangeable. One can find whole groups of words with half-erased connotations which can readily be substituted one for another. The same girl can be described as pretty, good-looking, handsome or beautiful. Yet, even these words are far from being totally interchangeable. Each of them creates its own .picture of human beauty. Here is an extract in which a young girl addresses an old woman:

 

"I wouldn't say you'd been exactly pretty as a girl — handsome is what I'd say. You've got such strong features."

(From The Stone Angel by M. Lawrence)

 

So, handsome is not pretty and pretty is not necessarily handsome. Perhaps they are not even synonyms? But they are. Both, the criterion of common denotation ("good-looking, of pleasing appearance") and even the dubious criterion of interchangeability seem to indicate that.

In conclusion, let us stress that even if there are some synonyms which are interchangeable, it is quite certain that there are also others which are not. A criterion, if it is a criterion at all, should be applicable to all synonyms and not just to some of them. Otherwise it is not acceptable as a valid criterion.

 

Types of Synonyms

The only existing classification system for synonyms was established by Academician V. V. Vinogradov, the famous Russian scholar. In his… However, the following aspects of his classification system are open to… Firstly, absolute synonyms are rare in the vocabulary and, on the diachronic level, the phenomenon of absolute…

Types of Connotations

I. The connotation of degree or intensity can be traced in such groups of synonyms as to surprise — to astonish — to amaze — to astound;1 to satisfy… As the table on p. 189 shows, some words have two and even more connotative… II. In the group of synonyms to stare — to glare — to gaze — to glance — to peep — to peer, all the synonyms except to…

I. Consider your answers to the following.

1. Say why synonyms are one of the language's most important expressive means. Illustrate your answer with examples. 2. Synonyms are sometimes described as words with "dual"… 3. The meanings of two apparent synonyms may be in a way opposed to each other. Why are such words still regarded as…

II. The sentences given below contain synonyms. Write them out in groups and explain the difference where the words are familiar.

b) It was a life that perhaps formed queer characters. c) I thought it odd that they should allow her to dance quite quietly in…  

III. Give as many synonyms for the italicized words in the following jokes as you can. If you do not know any of them consult the dictionaries.1 Revise Ch. 10.

 

 

1. "I hear there's a new baby over at your house, William," said the teacher. "I don't think he's new," replied William. "The way he cries shows he's had lots of experience."

2. A little boy who had been used to receiving his old brother's old toys and clothes remarked: "Ma, will I have to marry his widow when he dies?"

3. Small boy (to governess): Miss Smith, please excuse my speaking to you with my mouth full, but my little sister has just fallen into the pond.

4. A celebrated lawyer once said that the three most troublesome clients he ever had were a young lady who wanted to be married, a married woman who wanted a divorce, and an old maid who didn't know what she wanted.

5. Boss: You are twenty minutes late again. Don't you know what time we start to work at this office? New Employee: No, sir, they are always at it when I get here.

6. H e (as they drove along a lonely road): You look lovelier to me every minute. Do you know what that's a sign of? She: Sure. You are about to run out of gas.

7. Husband (shouting upstairs to his wife): For last time, Mary, are you coming? Wife: Haven't I been telling you for the last hour that I'll be down in a minute.

8. "Oh, Mummie, I hurt my toe!" cried small Janey, who was playing in the garden. "Which toe, dear?" I inquired, as I examined her foot. "My youngest one," sobbed Janey.

IV. Carry out definitional and transformational analysis on the italicized synonyms using the explanations of meanings given below. Examples of this type of analysis are given on p. 189. Draw diagrams and define the types of connotations found in them.1

 

1. Old means having lived a long time, far advanced in years; elderly means approaching old age, between middle and old age, past middle age, but hardly old; aged is somewhat old, implies greater age than elderly; ancient is so old as to seem to belong to a past age.

2. To create means to make an object which was not previously in existence, to bring into existence by inspiration or the like; to manufacture is to make by labour, often by machinery, especially on a large scale by some industrial process; to produce is to work up from raw material and turn it into economically useful and marketable goods.

3. To break is to separate into parts or fragments; to crack is to break anything hard with a sudden sharp blow without separating, so that the pieces remain together; to shatter is to break into fragments, particles and in numerous directions; to smash is to destroy, to break thoroughly to pieces with a crashing sound by some sudden act of violence.

4. To cry is to express grief or pain by audible lamentations, to shed tears with or without sound; to sob is to cry desperately with convulsive catching of the breath and noisily as from heart-rending grief; to weep means to shed tears more or less silently which is sometimes expression of pleasurable emotion.

5. Battle denotes the act of struggling, a hostile encounter or engagement between opposite forces on sea or land; combat denotes a struggle between armed forces, or individuals, it is usually of a smaller scale than battle, less frequently used in a figurative sense; fight denotes a struggle for victory, either between individuals or between armies, ships or navies, it is a word of less dignity than battle, fight usually implies a hand-to-hand conflict.

V. Consult the diagram on p. 125 and using the definitions of the following synonyms and the explanation given in the English-Russian Synonymic Dictionary1 prove that synonyms possess & dual nature. Draw the diagrams of meanings to illustrate your answer as in Exercise IV.

 

1. to shake — to tremble — to shiver — to shudder. 2. smell — scent — odour — aroma. 3. to walk — to stroll — to saunter — to wander. 4. to want — to wish — to desire. 5. weak — feeble — frail — fragile. 6. large — big — great. 7. to jump — to leap — to spring — to skip — to hop. 8. pain — ache — pang — twinge. 9. to discuss — to argue — to debate — to dispute. 10, dim — dusky — obscure.

 

VI. Single out the denotative and connotative components of meanings of the synonyms in the examples given below.

l. a) At the little lady's command they all three smiled, b) George, on hearing the story grinned. 2. a) Forsyte — the best palate in London. The…

VII. Look through Ch. 10 and, if necessary, through synonymic dictionaries and prove that the rows of words given below are synonyms. Use the semantic criterion to justify your opinion.

 

1. To shout— to yell— to roar. 2. angry— furious — enraged. 3. alone — solitary — lonely. 4. to shudder — to shiver — to tremble. 5. fear—terror— horror. 6. to cry — to weep — to sob. 7. to walk — to trot — to stroll. 8. to stare — to gaze — to glare. 9. to desire — to wish — to want. 10. to like — to admire — to worship.

VIII. Say why the italicized synonyms in the examples given below are not interchangeable.

1. a) The little boys stood glaring at each other ready to start a fight, b) The Greek myth runs that Narcissus gazed at his own reflection in the… IX. From the sentences given below write out the synonyms in groups and…  

A. synonyms differentiated by evaluative connotations;

B. synonyms differentiated by connotation of manner.

1. Besides, Jack is a notorious domesticity for John! 2. His eyes sparkled with amusement. 3. "Joey-Joey...!" I said staggering unevenly…  

XII. Within the following synonymic groups single out words with emotive connotations.

1. Fear— terror— horror. 2. look— stare— glare — gaze — glance. 3. love — admire — adore — worship. 4. alone — single — solitary — lonely. 5.… XIII. Do the italicized words possess stylistic connotations? If so, what are…  

XIV. Identify the stylistic connotations for the following italicized words in the jokes given below and write their synonyms with other stylistic connotations.

 

1. "I must say these are fine biscuits!" exclaimed the young husband. "How could you say those are fine biscuits?" inquired the young wife's mother, in a private interview. "I didn't say they were fine. I merely said I must say so."

 

2. "Willie," said his mother, "I wish you would run across the street and see how old Mrs. Brown is this morning." "Yes'm," replied Willie and a few minutes later he returned and reported: "Mrs. Brown says it's none of your business how old she is."

 

3. "Yes, she's married to a real-estate agent and a good, honest fellow, too."

"My gracious! Bigamy?"

 

4. Willie: Won't your pa spank you for staying out so late?

Tommy (whose father is a lawyer): No, I'll get an injunction from та postponing the spanking, and then I'll appeal to grandma and she'll have it made permanent.

 

5. A man entered the bar and called for "a Martinus". The barman observed as he picked up a glass, "You mean Martini, sir!" "No, indeed I don't," the man replied. "I was taught Latin properly and I only want

one."

6. A foreigner was relating his experience in studying the English language. He said: "When I first discovered that if I was quick I was fast; that if I was tied I was fast; and that not to eat was fast, I was discouraged. But when I came across the sentence, 'The first one won one-dollar prize' I gave up trying."

7. J a n e: Would you be insulted if that good-looking stranger offered you some champagne?

Joan: Yes, but I'd probably swallow the insult.

 

CHAPTER 11

Synonyms (continued).

Euphemisms. Antonyms

 

The Dominant Synonym

The attentive reader will have noticed that in the previous chapter much use was made of the numerous synonyms of the verb to look, and yet, the… Its semantic structure is quite simple: it consists only of denotative… All (or, at least, most) synonymic groups have a "central" word of this kind whose meaning is equal to the…

Euphemisms

There are words in every language which people instinctively avoid because they are considered indecent, indelicate, rude, too direct or impolite.… The word lavatory has, naturally, produced many euphemisms. Here are some of… Pregnancy is another topic for "delicate" references. Here are some of the euphemisms used as substitutes…

Antonyms

We use the term antonyms to indicate words of the same category of parts of speech which have contrasting meanings, such as hot — cold, light —-… If synonyms form whole, often numerous, groups, antonyms are usually believed… On the other hand, a polysemantic word may have an antonym (or several antonyms) for each of its meanings. So, the…

I. Consider your answers to the following.

1. Which word in a synonymic group is considered to be the dominant synonym? What are its characteristic features? 2. Can the dominant synonym be substituted for certain other members of a… 3. Which words are called euphemisms? What are their two main types? What function do they perform in speech? What is…

II. Find the dominant synonym in the following groups of synonyms. Explain your choice.

1. to glimmer — to glisten — to blaze — to shine — to sparkle— to flash— to gleam. 2. to glare— to gaze — to peep — to look — to stare — to glance.…  

III. The following sentences and jokes contain members of groups of synonyms. Provide as many synonyms as you can for each, explaining the difference between them; single out their dominant synonyms giving reasons for your choice.

 

1. "Why is it. Bob," asked George of a very stout friend, "that you fat fellows are always good-natured?" "We have to be," answered Bob. "You see, we can't either fight or run."

2. A teacher was giving a lesson on the weather idiosyncrasies of March. "What is it," she asked, "that comes in like a lion and goes out like a lamb?" And little Julia, in the back row, replied'. "Father."

3. "Just why do you want a married man to work for you, rather, than a bachelor?" asked the curious chap. "Well," sighed the boss, "the married men don't get so upset if I yell at them."

4. A kind-hearted English Vicar one day observed an old woman laboriously pushing a perambulator up a steep hill. He volunteered his assistance and when they reached the top of the hill, said, in answer to her thanks: "Oh, it's nothing at all. I'm delighted to do it. But as a little reward, may I kiss the baby?" "Baby? Lord bless you, sir, it ain't no baby, it's the old man's beer."

5. "The cheek of that red cap! He glared at me as if I hadn't my pass." "And what did you do?" "I glared back as if I had."

6. Comic Dictionary: ADULT — a person who has stopped growing at both ends and started growing in the middle. ADVERTISING — makes you think you've longed all your life for something you never even heard of before. BORE — one who insists upon talking about himself when you want to talk about yourself. FAME — chiefly a matter of dying at the right moment. PHILOSOPHER — one who instead of crying over spilt milk consoles himself with the thought that it was over four-fifths water.

IV. Find the dominant synonyms for the following italicized words and prove that they can be used as substitutes. Are they interchangeable? What is lost if we make the substitution?

 

1. Never for a moment did he interrupt or glance at his watch. 2. The girl looked astonished at my ignorance. 3. Sometimes perhaps a tramp will wander there, seeking shelter from a sudden shower of rain. 4.1 am very different from that self who drove to Manderiey for the first time filled with an intense desire to please. 5. The stony vineyards shimmer in the sun. 6. The restaurant was filled now with people who chatted and laughed. 7. I've got a sister and an ancient grandmother. 8. A bowl of roses in a drawing-room had a depth of colour and scent they had not possessed in the open. 9. He saw our newcomers, arms wound round each other, literally staggering from the bus. 10. Chicken-pox may be a mild children's disease. 11. In a funny way she wanted to reach out for that friendliness as if she needed it. Which was odd. 12. It could be a dream world. So pretty, yet so sad.

V. Reread Ch. 11 and find the euphemistic substitutes for the following words: die, drunk, prison, mad, liar, devil, lavatory, god, eat, pregnant, stupid. Write them out into two columns: A. euphemistic substitutes for social taboos. B. euphemistic substitutes for superstitions taboos.

VI. Find the euphemisms in the following sentences and jokes. Name the words for which they serve as euphemistic substitutes.

1. Policeman (to intoxicated man who is trying to fit his key to a lamp-post): I'm afraid there's nobody home there tonight. Man: Mus' be. Mus' be.…

VII. Find antonyms for the words given below.

 

Good, adj.; deep, adj.; narrow, adj., clever, adj.; young, adj.; to love, v.; to reject, v.; to give, u.; strong, adj.; to laugh, v.; joy, п.; evil, п.; up, adv., slowly, adj.; black, adj.; sad, adj.; to die, v.; to open, v.; clean, adj.; darkness, п.; big, adj.

VIII. Find antonyms in the following jokes and extracts and describe the resultant stylistic effect.

1.Policeman (holding up his hand}: Stop! Visitor: What's the matter? P.: Why are you driving on the right side of the road?

CHAPTER 12

Phraseological units, or idioms, as they are called by most western scholars,… If synonyms can be figuratively referred to as the tints and colours of the vocabulary, then phraseology is a kind of…

How to Distinguish Phraseological Units from Free Word-Groups

This is probably the most discussed — and the most controversial — problem in the field of phraseology. The task of distinguishing between free… There are two major criteria for distinguishing between phraseological units… Compare the following examples:

Proverbs

Consider the following examples of proverbs: We never know the value of water till the well is dry. You can take the horse to the water, but you cannot make him drink.

I. Consider your answers to the following.

1. What do v/e mean when we say that an idiom has a "double" meaning? 2. Why is it very important to use idioms with care? Should foreign-language… 3. The term "phraseological unit" is used by most Russian scholars. What other terms are used to describe…

IV. Show that you understand the meaning of the following phraseological units by using each of them in a sentence.

 

1. Between the devil and the deep sea; 2. to have one's heart in one's boots; 3. to have one's heart in the right place; 4. to wear one's heart on one's sleeve; 5. in the blues; 6. once in a blue moon; 7. to swear black is white; 8. out of the blue; 9. to talk till all is blue; 10. to talk oneself blue in the face.

V. Substitute phraseological units incorporating the names of colours for the italicized words.

1. I'm feeling rather miserable today. 2. He spends all his time on bureaucratic routine. 3. A thing like that happens very rarely. 4. You can talk…   VI. Read the following jokes. Why do little children often misunderstand phraseological units? Explain how the…

VII. Read the following jokes. Explain why the italicized groups of words are not phraseological units.

Warning

 

The little boy whose father was absorbed in reading a newspaper on the bench in the city park, exclaimed:

"Daddy, look, a plane!"

His father, still reading the paper, said: "All right, but don't touch it."

Great Discovery

 

A scientist rushed into the ops room of the space mission control centre: "You know that new gigantic computer which was to be the brain of the project? We have just made a great discovery!"

"What discovery?"

"It doesn't work!"

VIII. Explain whether the semantic changes in the following phraseological units are complete or partial. Paraphrase them.

 

To wear one's heart on one's sleeve; a wolf in a sheep's clothing; to fly into a temper; to stick to one's word; bosom friend; small talk; to cast pearls before swine; to beat about the bush; to add fuel to the fire; to fall ill; to fall in love; to sail under false colours; to be at sea.

IX. Say what structural variations are possible in the following phraseological units. If in doubt, consult the dictionaries.

To catch at a straw; a big bug; the last drop; to build a castle in the air; to weather the storm; to get the upper hand; to run for one's life; to…   X. Read the following jokes. Identify the phraseological units using the two major criteria: structural and semantic.…

XI. Read the following proverbs. Give their Russian equivalents or explain their meanings.

 

A bargain is a bargain. A cat in gloves catches no mice. Those who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones. A good beginning is half the battle. A new broom sweeps clean. An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening. It never rains but it pours. Don't look a gift horse in the mouth. Make hay while the sun shines.

 

XII. Give the English equivalents for the following Russian proverbs.

 

Нет худа без добра. В гостях хорошо, а дома лучше. С глаз долой, из сердца вон. Дуракам закон не писан.Он пороху не выдумает. Слезами горю не поможешь. Поспешишь — людей насмешишь. Взялся за гуж, не говори, что не дюж.

 

XIII. Give the proverbs from which the following phraseological units have developed.

 

Birds of a feather; to catch at a straw; to put all one's eggs in one basket; to cast pearls before swine; the first blow; a bird in the bush; to cry over spilt milk; the last straw.

 

XIV. Read the following joke. What proverb is paraphrased in it?

 

Dull and morose people, says a medical writer, seldom resist disease as easily as those with cheerful disposition. The surly bird catches the germ.

 

CHAPTER 13

Phraseology:

Principles of Classification

It would be interesting now to look at phraseological units from a different angle, namely: how are all these treasures of the language approached… But which characteristics should be chosen as the main criteria for such a… It should be clear from the previous description that a phraseological unit is a complex phenomenon with a number of…

Exercises

 

I. Consider your answers to the following.

1. What is the basis of the traditional and oldest principle for classifying phraseological units? 2. What other criteria can be used for the classification of phraseological… 3. Do you share the opinion that in idioms the original associations are partly or wholly lost? Are we entirely free…

B. Give at least fifteen examples of your own to illustrate the phraseological units in your list.

English has many colloquial expressions to do with parts of the human body — from head to toe! Here are some of the commonest ones. To keep your head is to remain calm, but to lose it is to panic and do… If you split hairs, you are very pedantic, but if you don't turn a hair you are very calm.

B. Give at least fifteen examples of your own to illustrate the phraseological units in your list.

 

IV. In the texts of exercises II and III find examples of phraseological synonyms and antonyms.

V. Complete the following sentences, using the phraseological units given in the list below. Translate them into Russian.

1. If I pay my rent, I won't have any money to buy , food. I'm between ——. 2. It's no use grumbling about your problems — we're all ——. 3. He's sold… to take the rough with the smooth; between the devil and the deep sea; to take…

VI. Complete the following similes. Translate the phraseological units into Russian. If necessary, use your dictionary.

 

A. as black as as green as as cold as as white as as old as as changeable as as safe as as brown as as clean as as dull as

В. as a lion as a lamb as a mouse as a cat as a kitten as an eel as an owl as a wolf as a cricket as a bee

VII. Complete the following sentences, using the words from the list below. Translate the phraseological units into Russian.

1. She was so embarrassed that she went as red as a ——. 2.1 can carry the suitcase easily, it's as light as a ——. 3. The room is as warm as ——. 4.… ice, beetroot, mule, feather, sheet, toast, clockwork, bee, rail, peacock

VIII. In the examples given below identify the phraseological units and classify them on the semantic principle.

1. The operation started badly and everyone was in a temper throughout. 2.1 know a man who would love meeting you. The perfect nut for you to crack…  

IX. In the examples given below identify the phraseological units and classify them on the structural principle. Translate the phraseological units into Russian.

 

1. Ella Friedenberg thinks she's Freud, but actually she's Peeping Tom. 2. What it symbolized was a fact of banking-corporate life: You scratch my back and I'll scratch yours. 3. There was a man I cared about, and this afternoon he told me out of a clear sky that he was poor as a churchmouse. 4. Finally he asked me out of the blue if I could drive a car. 5. But Nelson did not believe in letting the grass grow under his feet and applied for the headmastership of a Mission School that was being started in New Guinea. 6. He took his ideas from "Daily Telegraph" and the books in prep-school library, and his guiding rule in life was to play safe. 7. By God! I may be old-fashioned in my ideas, but women run around too much these days to suit me. They meet all kinds of crazy fish. 8. Then I got a shock that stiffened me from head to toe.

 

X. Read the following jokes. Classify the italicized word-groups, using Professor Smirnitsky's classification system for phraseological units.

 

Out of the Fire Into the Frying Pan

 

A fighter pilot bailed out of his aircraft which had suddenly caught fire. He safely landed in an orchard on an apple tree and climbed down without a scratch, but a few minutes later he was taken to hospital. The gardener's fierce and vigilant dog had been waiting for him under the tree.

 

More Precise

Two aviation meteorologists were engaged in shop talk. "No, I don't watch the TV weather commentary. I reckon you get better… XI. Group the following italicized phraseological units, using Professor Koonin's classification system. Translate…

CHAPTER 14

Do Americans Speak English

  In one of his stories Oscar Wilde said that the English "have really… Bernard Shaw, on the contrary, seemed to hold a different opinion on the point, but he expressed it in such an…

Vocabulary of American English

It is quite true that the vocabulary used by American speakers, has distinctive features of its own. More than that: there are whole groups of words… The first group of such words may be described as historical Americanisms. At the beginning of the 17th c. the first English migrants began arriving in America in search of new and better…

The Grammar System of American English

Here we are likely to find even fewer divergencies than in the vocabulary system. The first distinctive feature is the use of the auxiliary verb will in the… The second distinctive feature consists in a tendency to substitute the Past Indefinite Tense for the Present Perfect…

I. Consider your answers to the following.

1. In what different ways might the language spoken in the USA be viewed linguistically? 2. What are the peculiarities of the vocabulary of English spoken in the… 3. Can we say that the vocabulary of the language spoken in the USA supports the hypothesis that there is an…

V. Give the British equivalents for the following Americanism.

 

Apartment, store, baggage, street car, full, truck, elevator, candy, corn.

 

VI. Explain the differences in the meanings of the following words in American and British English.

 

Corn, apartment, homely, guess, lunch.

 

VII. Identify the etymology of the following words.

 

Ohio, ranch, squash, mosquito, banjo, toboggan, pickaninny, Mississippi, sombrero, prairie, wigwam.

 

VIII. Comment on the formation of the following' words.

 

Rattlesnake, foxberry, auto, Americanism, Colonist, addressee, ad, copperhead, pipe of peace, fire-water.

 

IX. Translate the following words giving both the British and American variant.

 

Каникулы, бензин, осень, консервная банка, радио, трамвай.

X. Give the synonyms for the following American shortenings. Describe the words from the stylistic point of view.

 

Gym, mo, circs, auto, perm, cert, n. g., b. f., g. m., dorm.

XI. In the following sentences find the examples of words which are characteristic of American English. State whether they belong to the group of a) historical Americanisms; b) proper Americanisms; c) American shortenings; d) American borrowings. Take note of their spelling peculiarities.

 

1. As the elevator carried Brett downward. Hank Kreisel closed and locked the apartment door from inside. 2. A raw fall wind swirled leaves and dust in small tornadoes and sent pedestrians scurrying for indoor warmth. 3. Over amid the bungalows a repair crew was coping with a leaky water main. 4. We have also built, ourselves, experimental trucks and cars which are electric powered. 5. In a plant bad news travelled like burning gasoline. 6. May Lou wasn't in; she had probably gone to a movie. 7. The bank was about equal in size to a neighbourhood drugstore, brightly lighted and pleasantly designed. 8. Nolan Wainwright walked towards the apartment building, a three-storey structure probably forty years old and showing signs of disrepair. He guessed it contained two dozen or so apartments. Inside a vestibule Nolan Wainwright could see an array of mail boxes and call buttons. 9. He's a barber and one of our bird dogs.1 We had twenty or so regular bird dogs, Smokey revealed, including service station operators, a druggist, a beauty-parlor operator, and an undertaker. 10. Barbara put a hand to her hair — chestnut brown and luxuriant, like her Polish Mother's; it also grew annoyingly fast so she had to spend more time than she liked in beauty salons. 11. He hadn't had an engineering degree to start, having been a high school dropout before World War II. 12. Auto companies regularly invited design school students in, treating them like VIP's,1 while the students saw for themselves the kind of aura they might work in later.

XII. Read the following joke and find examples of words which are characteristic of American English.

 

The Bishop of London, speaking at a meeting recently, said that when he was in America he had learned to say to his chauffeur, "Step on the gas, George," but so far he had not summoned sufficient courage to say to the Archbishop of Canterbury, "О. К., Chief."

 

XIII. Bead the following extract. Explain the difference in the meanings of the italicized words in American and British English.

In America just as in English, you see the same shops with the same boards and windows in every town and village. Shopping, however, is an art of its own and you have to learn slowly where to… I should like to mention that although a lift is called an elevator in the United States, when hitch-hiking you do not…

XV. Look through the following list of words and state what spelling norms are accepted in the USA and Great Britain so far as the given words are concerned.

 

1. favour — favor

honour — honor

colour — color

 

2. defence — defense

practice — practise

offence — offense

 

3. centre — center

metre — meter

fibre — fiber

 

4. marvellous — marvelous

woollen — woolen

jewellery — jewelry

 

5. to enfold — to infold

to encrust — to incrust

to empanel — to impanel

 

6. cheque — check

catalogue-catalog

programme — program

 

7. Judgement — judgment

abridgement — abridgment

acknowledgement — acknowledgment

 

XVI. Write the following words according to the British norms of spelling.

Judgment, practise, instill, color, flavor, check, program, woolen, humor, theater.

XVII. Write the following words according to the American norms of spelling.

 

Honour, labour, centre, metre, defence, offence, catalogue, abridgement, gramm, enfold, marvellous.

 

XVIII. Read the following passage. Give some more examples illustrating the differences in grammar between the two varieties of English.

Q: I thought Americans always said gotten when they used the verb get as a full verb. But you did say I've got your point, didn't you? M: Yes, I did. You know, it's a common English belief — almost a superstition… (From A Common Language by A. H. Marckwardt and R. Quirk)

Supplementary Material

To Chapters 3, 4   From "GROWTH AND STRUCTURE

Sources

1. Амосова Н. Н. Английская контекстология. Л., 1968. 2. Амосова Н. Н. Основы английской фразеологии. Л., 1963. 3. Аракин В. Д. Очерки по истории английского языка. М., 1955.

DICTIONARIES

43. Апресян Ю. Д., Ботякова В. В., Латышева Т. Э. и др. Англо-русский синонимический словарь. М., 1998. 44. Аракин В. Д. и др. Англо-русский словарь. М., 1997. 45. Ахманова О. С. Словарь лингвистических терминов. М.,1966.

LIST OF AUTHORS QUOTED

Aldington R. Death of a Hero. M., 1958. Aldridge J. One Last Glimpse. Penguin Books, 1977. Anderson Wood P. A Five-Colour Buick. Bantam Books, 1975.

Антрушина Галина Борисовна

Афанасьева Ольга Васильевна

Морозова Наталья Николаевна

ЛЕКСИКОЛОГИЯ АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА

Зав. редакцией Е. В. Рубина Ответственные редакторы М. Н. Андреева, Е. В. Рубина Редактор О. И. Ермакова

По вопросам приобретения продукции

  127018, Москва, Сущевский вал, 49. Тел.: (095) 795-05-50, 795-05-51. Факс: (095) 795-05-52.