Semantics of Affixes - раздел Образование, Лексикология
The Morpheme, And Therefore Affix, Which Is A Type Of ...
The morpheme, and therefore affix, which is a type of morpheme, is generally defined as the smallest indivisible component of the word possessing a meaning of its own. Meanings of affixes are specific and considerably differ from those of root morphemes. Affixes have widely generalized meanings and refer the concept conveyed by the whole word to a certain category, which is vast and all-embracing. So, the noun-forming suffix -er could be roughly defined as designating persons from the object of their occupation or labour (painter — the one who paints) or from their place of origin or abode {southerner — the one living in the South). The adjective-forming suffix -ful has the meaning of "full of", "characterized by" (beautiful, careful) whereas -ish Olay often imply insufficiency of quality (greenish — green, but not quite; youngish — not quite young but looking it).
Such examples might lead one to the somewhat hasty conclusion that the meaning of a derived word is always a sum of the meanings of its morphemes: un/eat/able =» "not fit to eat" where not stands for un- and fit for: -able.
There are numerous derived words whose meanings can really be easily deduced from the meanings of their constituent parts. Yet, such cases represent only the first and simplest stage of semantic readjustment with in derived words. The constituent morphemes within derivatives do not always preserve their current meanings and are open to subtle and complicated semantic shifts.
Let us take at random some of the adjectives formed with the same productive suffix -y, and try to deduce the meaning of the suffix from their dictionary definitions:
brainy (inform.) — intelligent, intellectual, i. e, characterized by brains
catty — quietly or slyly malicious, spiteful, i. e, characterized by features ascribed to a cat
chatty — given to chat, inclined to chat
dressy (inform.) — showy in dress, i. e. inclined to dress well or to be overdressed
fishy (e. g. in a fishy story, inform.) — improbable, hard to believe (like stories told by fishermen)
foxy — foxlike, cunning or crafty, i. e. characterized by features ascribed to a fox
stagy — theatrical, unnatural, i. e. inclined to affectation, to unnatural theatrical manners
touchy — apt to take offence on slight provocation, i. e. resenting a touch or contact (not at all inclined to be touched)1
The Random-House Dictionary defines the meaning of the -y suffix as "characterized by or inclined to the substance or action of the root to which the affix is attached". [46] Yet, even the few given examples show that, on the one hand, there are cases, like touchy or fishy that are not covered by the definition. On the other hand, even those cases that are roughly covered, show a wide variety of subtle shades of meaning. It is not only the suffix that adds its own meaning to the meaning of the root, but the suffix is, in its turn, affected by the root and undergoes certain semantic changes, so that the mutual influence of root and affix creates a wide range of subtle nuances.
But is the suffix -y probably exceptional in this respect? It is sufficient to examine further examples to see that other affixes also offer an interesting variety of semantic shades. Compare, for instance, the meanings of adjective-forming suffixes in each of these groups of adjectives.
1. eatable (fit or good to eat)2
lovable (worthy of loving)
questionable (open to doubt, to question)
imaginable (capable of being imagined)
2. lovely (charming, beautiful, i. e. inspiring love)
lonely (solitary, without company; lone; the meaning of the suffix does not seem to add anything to that of the root)
friendly (characteristic of or befitting a friend.)
heavenly (resembling or befitting heaven; beautiful, splendid)
3. childish (resembling or befitting a child)
tallish (rather tall, but not quite, i. e. approaching the quality of big size)
girlish (like a girl, but, often, in a bad imitation of one)
bookish(1) given or devoted to reading or study;
(2) more acquainted with books than with real life, i. e. possessing the quality of bookish learning)
The semantic distinctions of words produced from the same root by means of different affixes are also of considerable interest, both for language studies and research work. Compare: womanly — womanish, flowery — flowered -— flowering, starry — starred, reddened — reddish, shortened — shortish.
The semantic difference between the members of these groups is very obvious: the meanings of the suffixes are so distinct that they colour the whole words.
Womanly is used in a complimentary manner about girls and women, whereas womanish is used to indicate an effeminate man and certainly implies criticism.
Flowery is applied to speech or a style (cf. with the R. цветистый), flowered means "decorated with a patters of flowers" (e. g. flowered silk or chintz, cf. with the R, цветастый) and flowering is the same as blossoming (e. g. flowering bushes or shrubs, cf. with the R. цветущий).
Starry means "resembling stars" (e. g. starry eyes) and starred — "covered or decorated with stars" (e. g. starred skies).
Reddened and shortened both imply the result of an action or process, as in the eyes reddened with weeping or a shortened version of a story (i. e. a story that has been abridged) whereas shortish and reddish point to insufficiency of quality: reddish is not exactly red, but tinged with red, and a shortish man is probably a little taller than a man described as short.
Conversion
When in a book-review a book is referred to as a splendid read, is read to be regarded as a verb or a noun? What part of speech is room in the sentence: I was to room with another girl called Jessie. If a character in a novel is spoken about as one who hadto be satisfied with the role of a has-been, what is this odd-looking has-been, a verb or a noun? One must admit that it has quite a verbal appearance, but why, then, is it preceded by the article?
Why is the word if used in the plural form in the popular proverb: If ifs and ans were pots and pans? (an = if, dial., arch.)
This type of questions naturally arise when one deals with words produced by conversion, one of the most productive ways of modern English word-building.
Conversion is sometimes referred to as an affixless way of word-building or even affixless derivation. Saying that, however, is saying very little because there are other types of word-building in which new words are also formed without affixes (most compounds, contracted words, sound-imitation words, etc.).
Conversion consists in making a new word from some existing word by changing the category of a part of speech, the morphemic shape of the original word remaining unchanged. The new word has a meaning Which differs from that of the original one though it can more or less be easily associated with it. It has also a new paradigm peculiar to its new category as a part of speech.
The question of conversion has, for a long time, been a controversial one in several aspects. The very essence of this process has been treated by a number of scholars (e. g. H. Sweet), not as a word-building act, but as a mere functional change. From this point of view the word hand in Hand me that book is not a verb, but a noun used in a verbal syntactical function, that is, hand (me) and hands (in She has small hands)are not two different words but one. Hence, the case cannot be treated as one of word-formation for no new word appears.
According to this functional approach, conversion may be regarded as a specific feature of the English categories of parts of speech, which are supposed to be able to break through the rigid borderlines dividing one category from another thus enriching the process of communication not by the creation of new words but through the sheer flexibility of the syntactic structures.
Nowadays this theory finds increasingly fewer supporters, and conversion is universally accepted as one of the major ways of enriching English vocabulary with new words. One of the major arguments for this approach to conversion is the semantic change that regularly accompanies each instance of conversion. Normally, a word changes its syntactic function without any shift in lexical meaning. E. g. both in yellow leaves and in The leaves were turning yellow the adjective denotes colour. Yet, in The leaves yellowed the converted unit no longer denotes colour, but the process of changing colour, so that there is an essential change in meaning.
The change of meaning is even more obvious in such pairs as hand > to hand, face > to face, to go > a go, to make > a make, etc.
The other argument is the regularity and completeness with which converted units develop a paradigm of their new category of part of speech. As soon as it has crossed the category borderline, the new word automatically acquires all the properties of the new category, so that if it has entered the verb category, it is now regularly used in all the forms of tense and it also develops the forms of the participle and the gerund. Such regularity can hardly be regarded as indicating a mere functional change which might be expected to bear more occasional characteristics. The completeness of the paradigms in new conversion formations seems to be a decisive argument proving that here we are dealing with new words and not with mere functional variants. The data of the more reputable modern English dictionaries confirm this point of view: they all present converted pairs as homonyms, i. e. as two words, thus supporting the thesis that conversion is a word-building process.
Conversion is not only a highly productive but also a particularly English way of word-building. Its immense productivity is considerably encouraged by certain features of the English language in its modern Stage of development. The analytical structure of Modern English greatly facilitates processes of making words of one category of parts of speech from words of another. So does the simplicity of paradigms of En-lush parts of speech. A great number of one-syllable Words is another factor in favour of conversion, for such words are naturally more mobile and flexible than polysyllables.
Conversion is a convenient and "easy" way of enriching the vocabulary with new words. It is certainly an advantage to have two (or more) words where there Was one, all of them fixed on the same structural and semantic base.
The high productivity of conversion finds its reflection in speech where numerous occasional cases of conversion can be found, which are not registered by dictionaries and which occur momentarily, through the immediate need of the situation. "If anybody oranges me again tonight, I'll knock his face off, says the annoyed hero of a story by O'Henry when a shop-assistant offers him oranges (for the tenth time in one night) instead of peaches for which he is looking ("Lit. tie Speck in Garnered Fruit"). One is not likely to find the verb to orange in any dictionary, but in this situation it answers the need for brevity, expressiveness and humour.
The very first example, which opens the section on conversion in this chapter (the book is a splendid read), though taken from a book-review, is a nonce-word, which may be used by reviewers now and then or in informal verbal communication, but has not yet found its way into the universally acknowledged English vocabulary.
Such examples as these show that conversion is a vital and developing process that penetrates contemporary speech as well. Subconsciously every English speaker realizes the immense potentiality of making a word into another part of speech when the need arises.
* * *
One should guard against thinking that every case of noun and verb (verb and adjective, adjective and noun, etc.) with the same morphemic shape results from conversion. There are numerous pairs of words (e. g. love, n. — to love, v.; work, n. — to work, v.; drink, n. — to drink, v., etc.) which did, not occur due to conversion but coincided as a result of certain historical processes (dropping of endings, simplification of stems) when before that they had different forms (e. g. O. E. lufu, n. — lufian, v.). On the other hand, it is quite true that the first cases of conversion (which were registered in the 14th c.) imitated such pairs of words as love, n. — to love, v. for they were numerous to the vocabulary and were subconsciously accepted by native speakers as one of the typical language patterns.
* * *
The two categories of parts of speech especially affected by conversion are nouns and verbs. Verbs made from nouns are the most numerous amongst the words produced by conversion: e. g. to hand, to back, to face, to eye, to mouth, to nose, to dog, to wolf, to monkey, to can, to coal, to stage, to screen, to room, to floor, to ^lack-mail, to blacklist, to honeymoon, and very many ethers.
Nouns are frequently made from verbs: do (e. g. This ifs the queerest do I've ever come across. Do — event, incident), go (e. g. He has still plenty of go at his age. Go — energy), make, run, find, catch, cut, walk, worry, show, move, etc.
Verbs can also be made from adjectives: to pale, to yellow, to cool, to grey, to rough (e. g. We decided sq rough it in the tents as the weather was warm), etc.
Other parts of speech are not entirely unsusceptible to conversion as the following examples show: to down, to out (as in a newspaper heading Diplomatist Outed from Budapest), the ups and downs, the ins and outs, like, n. (as in the like of me and the like of you).
* * *
It was mentioned at the beginning of this section that a word made by conversion has a different meaning from that of the word from which it was made though the two meanings can be associated. There are Certain regularities in these associations which can be roughly classified. For instance, in the group of verbs made from nouns some of the regular semantic associations are as indicated in the following list:
I. The noun is the name of a tool or implement, the verb denotes an action performed by the tool: to hammer, to nail, to pin, to brush, to comb, to pencil.
II. The noun is the name of an animal, the verb denotes an action or aspect of behaviour considered typical of this animal: to dog, to wolf, to monkey, to ape, to fox, to rat. Yet, to fish does not mean "to behave like a fish" but "to try to catch fish". The same meaning of hunting activities is conveyed by the verb to whale and one of the meanings of to rat; the other is "to turn informer, squeal" (sl.).
III. The name of a part of the human body — an action performed by it: to hand, to leg (sl.), to eye, to elbow, to shoulder, to nose, to mouth. However, to face does not imply doing something by or even with one's face but turning it in a certain direction. To back means either "to move backwards" or, in the figurative sense, "to support somebody or something".
IV. The name of a profession or occupation — an activity typical of it: to nurse, to cook, to maid, to groom.
V. The name of a place — the process of occupying" the place or of putting smth./smb. in it (to room, to house, to place, to table, to cage).
VI. The name of a container — the act of putting smth. within the container (to can, to bottle, to pocket).
VII. The name of a meal — the process of taking it (to lunch, to supper).
The suggested groups do not include all the great variety of verbs made from nouns by conversion. They just represent the most obvious cases and illustrate, convincingly enough, the great variety of semantic interrelations within so-called converted pairs and the complex nature of the logical associations which specify them.
In actual fact, these associations are not only complex but sometimes perplexing. It would seem that if you know that the verb formed from the name of an animal denotes behaviour typical of the animal, it would easy for you to guess the meaning of such a verb provided that you know the meaning of the noun. Yet, it is not always easy. Of course, the meaning of to fox is rather obvious being derived from the associated reputation of that animal for cunning: to fox means "to act cunningly or craftily". But what about to wolf? How is one to know which of the characteristics of the animal was picked by the speaker's subconscious when this verb was produced? Ferocity? Loud and unpleasant fowling? The inclination to live in packs? Yet, as the Hollowing example shows, to wolf means "to eat greedily, voraciously": Charlie went on wolfing the chocolate. (R. Dahl)
In the same way, from numerous characteristics of | be dog, only one was chosen for the verb to dog which is well illustrated by the following example:
And what of Charles? I pity any detective who would have to dog him through those twenty months.
(From The French Lieutenant's Woman by J. Fowles)
(To dog — to follow or track like a dog, especially with hostile intent.)
The two verbs to ape and to monkey, which might be expected to mean more or less the same, have shared between themselves certain typical features of the same animal:
to ape — to imitate, mimic(e. g. He had always aped the gentleman in his clothes and manners. — J. Fowles);
to monkey — to fool, to act or play idly and foolishly. To monkey can also be used in the meaning "to imitate", but much rarer than to ape.
The following anecdote shows that the intricacies ex semantic associations in words made by conversion may prove somewhat bewildering even for some native-speakers, especially for children.
"Mother", said Johnny, "is it correct to say you 'water a horse' when he's thirsty?"
"Yes, quite correct."
"Then", (picking up a saucer) "I'm going to milk the cat."
The joke is based on the child's mistaken association of two apparently similar patterns: water, п. — to water, v.; milk, n. — to milk, v. But it turns out that the meanings of the two verbs arose from different associations: to water a horse means "to give him water", but to milk implies getting milk from an animal (e. g, to milk a cow).
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English Lexicology
Рекомендовано Министерством образования Российской Федерации
в качестве учебного пособия для студентов высших учебных заведений, обучающихся по педагогическ
Антрушина Г. В., Афанасьева О. В., Морозова Н. Н.
А72 Лексикология английского языка: Учеб. пособие для студентов. — 3-е изд., стереотип. — М.: Дрофа, 2001. — 288 с.
ISBN 5—7107—4955—9
Учебное пособие включает раз
Contents
INTRODUCTION. What Is a Word? What Is Lexicology?...................................... 5
CHAPTER 1. Which Word Should We Choose, Formal or Informal?..................... 9
CHAPTE
Preface
In this book the reader will find the fundamentals of the word theory and of the main problems associated with English vocabulary, its characteristics and subdivisions. Each chapter
INTRODUCTION
What Is a Word? What Is Lexicology?
What's in a name? that which we call a rose
By any other name would smell as sweet...
The Main Lexicological Problems
Two of these have already been underlined. The problemof word-building is associated with prevailing morphological word-structures and with processes of making new words. Semantics
Consider your answers to the following.
1. In what way can one analyse a word a) socially, b) linguistically?
2. What are the structural aspects of the word?
3. What is the external structure of the word
CHAPTER 1
Which Word Should We Choose, Formal or Informal?
Just as there is formal and informal dress, so there is formal and informal speech. One is not supposed to
Informal Style
Informal vocabulary is used in one's immediate circle: family, relatives or friends. One uses informal words when at home or when feeling at home.
Informal style is relaxed
Colloquial Words
Among other informal words, colloquialisms are the least exclusive: they are used by everybody, and their sphere of communication is comparatively wide, at least of litera
Dialect Words
H. W. Fowler defines a dialect as "a variety of a language which prevails in a district, with local peculiarities of vocabulary, pronunciation and phrase".[19] England is
I. Consider your answers to the following.
1. What determines the choice of stylistically marked words in each particular situation?
2. In what situations are informal words used?
3. What are the main kinds
III. a. Read the following extract.
A young man, Freddie by name, had invited a pretty young girl April to a riverside picnic. April could not come and sent her little sister to keep Freddie company.
It was n
Learned Words
These words are mainly associated with the printed page. It is in this vocabulary stratum that poetry and fiction find their main resources.
The term "learned" is
Archaic and Obsolete Words
These words stand close to the "learned" words, particularly to the modes of poetic diction. Learned words and archaisms are both associated with the printed page. Yet, as
Professional Terminology
Hundreds of thousands of words belong to special scientific, professional or trade terminological systems and are not used or even understood by people outside the particular specia
Basic Vocabulary
These words are stylistically neutral, and, in this respect, opposed to formal and informal words described above. Their stylistic neutrality makes it possible to use them in all ki
I. Consider your answers to the following.
1. Where are formal words used?
2. Are learned words used only in books? Which type of learned words, do you think, is especially suitable for verbal communication? Which i
The Etymology of English Words.1
Are All English Words Really English?
As a matter of fact, they are — if we regard them in the light of present-day English. If, however, their origins are
I. Latin Affixes
Nouns
The suffix -ion
communion, legion, opinion, session, union, etc.
The suffix -tion
II. French Affixes
Nouns
The suffix
-ance
arrogance, endurance, hindrance, etc.
The suffix
-erace
I. Consider your answers to the following.
1. How can you account for the fact that English vocabulary contains such an immense number of words of foreign origin?
2. What is the earliest group of English borrowings?
The Roman Occupation
For some reason the Romans neglected to overrun the country with fire and sword, though they had both of these; in fact after the Conquest they did not mingle with the Britons at all but lived a se
CHAPTER 4
The Etymology of English Words (continued)
Why Are Words Borrowed?
This question partially concerns the histor
International Words
It is often the case that a word is borrowed by several languages, and not just by one. Such words usually convey concepts which are significant in the field of communication.
Etymological Doublets
The words shirt and skirt etymologically descend from the same root. Shirt is a native word, and skirt (as the initial sk suggests) is a Scandinav
Translation-Loans
The term loan-word is equivalent to borrowing. By translation-loans we indicate borrowings of a special kind. They are not taken into the vocabulary of another languag
How English Words Are Made. Word-Building1
Before turning to the various processes of making words, it would be useful to analyse the related problem of the composition of words, i. e. of their constituent parts.
If
Affixation
The process of affixation consists in coining a new word by adding an affix or several affixes to some root morpheme. The role of the affix in this procedure is Very importan
I. Consider your answers to the following.
1. What are the main ways of enriching the English vocabulary?
2. What are the principal productive ways of word-building in English?
3. What do we mean by derivat
IX. Find eases of conversion in the following sentences.
1. The clerk was eyeing him expectantly. 2. Under the cover of that protective din he was able to toy with a steaming dish which his waiter had brought. 3. An aggressive man battled
Composition
This type of word-building, in which new words are produced by combining two or more stems, is one of the three most productive types in Modern English, the other two are conversion
Semi-Affixes
Consider the following examples.
"... The Great Glass Elevator is shockproof, waterproof, bombproof, bulletproof, and Knidproof1..."
(From Charlie and
Shortening (Contraction)
This comparatively new way of word-building has achieved a high degree of productivity nowadays, especially in American English.
Shortenings (or contracted/curtailed words)
Sound-Imitation (Onomatopoeia1)
Words coined by this interesting type of word-building are made by imitating different kinds of sounds that may be produced by animals, birds, insects, human beings and inanimate ob
Reduplication
In reduplication new words are made by doubling a stem, either without any phonetic changes as in bye-bye (coil, for good-bye} or with a variation of the root-v
Back-Formation (Reversion)
The earliest examples of this type of word-building are the verb to beg that was made from the French borrowing beggar, to burgle from burglar, to cobble from
I. Consider your answers to the following.
1. What is understood by composition? What do we call words made by this type of word-building?
2. Into what groups and subgroups can compounds be subdivided structurally?
CHAPTER 7
What Is "Meaning"?
Language is the amber in which
a thousand precious and subtle
thoughts have been safely
embedded an
Polysemy. Semantic Structure of the Word
The semantic structure of the word does not present an indissoluble unity (that is, actually, why it is referred to as "structure"), nor does it necessarily stand for one
Types of Semantic Components
The leading semantic component in the semantic structure of a word is usually termed denotative component (also, the term referential component may be used). The denot
Meaning and Context
In the beginning of the paragraph entitled "Polysemy" we discussed the advantages and disadvantages of this linguistic phenomenon. One of the most important "drawback
I. Consider your answers to the following.
1. What is understood by "semantics"? Explain the term "polysemy".
2. Define polysemy as a linguistic phenomenon. Illustrate your answer with your own e
How Words Develop New Meanings
It has been mentioned that the systems of meanings of polysemantic words evolve gradually. The older a word is, the better developed is its semantic structure. The normal pattern of
Causes of Development of New Meanings
The first group of causes is traditionally termed historical or extra-linguistic.
Different kinds of changes in a nation's social life, in its culture, knowledge, te
The Process of Development and Change of Meaning
The second question we must answer in this chapter is how new meanings develop. To find the answer to this question we must investigate the inner mechanism of this process, o
Transference Based on Resemblance (Similarity)
This type of transference is also referred to as linguistic metaphor. A new meaning appears as a result of associating two objects (phenomena, qualities, etc.) due to their o
Transference Based on Contiguity
Another term for this type of transference is linguistic metonymy. The association is based upon subtle psychological links between different objects and phenomena, sometimes
Narrowing (or Specialization) of Meaning
Sometimes, the process of transference may result in a considerable change in range of meaning. For instance, the verb to arrive (French borrowing) began its life in English
Words of the Same Form
Homonyms are words which are identical in sound and spelling, or, at least, in one of these aspects, but different in their meaning.
E. g. bank, n. — a sho
Sources of Homonyms
One source of homonyms has already been mentioned: phonetic changes which words undergo in the course of their historical development. As a result of such changes, two or mor
Classification of Homonyms
The subdivision of homonyms into homonyms proper, homophones and homographs is certainly not precise enough and does not reflect certain important features of these wo
I. Consider your answers to the following.
1. Which words do we call homonyms?
2. Why can't homonyms be regarded as expressive means of the language?
3. What is the traditional classification of homonyms? I
CHAPTER 10
Synonyms:
Are Their Meanings the Same or Different?
Synonymy is one of modern linguistics' most controversial problems. The very
Criteria of Synonymy
Synonymy is associated with some theoretical problems which at present are still an object of controversy. Probably, the most controversial among these is the problem of criteria of
Types of Synonyms
The only existing classification system for synonyms was established by Academician V. V. Vinogradov, the famous Russian scholar. In his classification system there are three types
Types of Connotations
I. The connotation of degree or intensity can be traced in such groups of synonyms as to surprise — to astonish — to amaze — to astound;1 to satisfy — to please
I. Consider your answers to the following.
1. Say why synonyms are one of the language's most important expressive means. Illustrate your answer with examples.
2. Synonyms are sometimes described as words with "
The Dominant Synonym
The attentive reader will have noticed that in the previous chapter much use was made of the numerous synonyms of the verb to look, and yet, the verb to look itself wa
Euphemisms
There are words in every language which people instinctively avoid because they are considered indecent, indelicate, rude, too direct or impolite. As the "offensive" refer
Antonyms
We use the term antonyms to indicate words of the same category of parts of speech which have contrasting meanings, such as hot — cold, light —- dark, happiness — sorrow,
I. Consider your answers to the following.
1. Which word in a synonymic group is considered to be the dominant synonym? What are its characteristic features?
2. Can the dominant synonym be substituted for certain ot
CHAPTER 12
Phraseology: Word-Groups with Transferred Meanings
Phraseological units, or idioms, as they are called by most western scholars, represent what can probab
Proverbs
Consider the following examples of proverbs:
We never know the value of water till the well is dry.
You can take the horse to the water, but you cannot m
I. Consider your answers to the following.
1. What do v/e mean when we say that an idiom has a "double" meaning?
2. Why is it very important to use idioms with care? Should foreign-language students use th
Principles of Classification
It would be interesting now to look at phraseological units from a different angle, namely: how are all these treasures of the language approached by the linguistic science? The ver
I. Consider your answers to the following.
1. What is the basis of the traditional and oldest principle for classifying phraseological units?
2. What other criteria can be used for the classification of phraseologic
More Precise
Two aviation meteorologists were engaged in shop talk.
"No, I don't watch the TV weather commentary. I reckon you get better weather on the radio," said on
Do Americans Speak English
or American?
In one of his stories Oscar Wilde said that the English "have really everything in common with America nowadays, except, of course, langu
Vocabulary of American English
It is quite true that the vocabulary used by American speakers, has distinctive features of its own. More than that: there are whole groups of words which belong to American vocabul
The Grammar System of American English
Here we are likely to find even fewer divergencies than in the vocabulary system.
The first distinctive feature is the use of the auxiliary verb will in the first pe
I. Consider your answers to the following.
1. In what different ways might the language spoken in the USA be viewed linguistically?
2. What are the peculiarities of the vocabulary of English spoken in the USA?
Supplementary Material
To Chapters 3, 4
From "GROWTH AND STRUCTURE
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE"
by Otto Jespersen
Ch. IV.
Sources
1. Амосова Н. Н. Английская контекстология. Л., 1968.
2. Амосова Н. Н. Основы английской фразеологии. Л., 1963.
3. Аракин В. Д. Очерки по исто
DICTIONARIES
43. Апресян Ю. Д., Ботякова В. В., Латышева Т. Э. и др. Англо-русский синонимический словарь. М., 1998.
44. Аракин В. Д. и др. Англо-русский словарь. М., 1997
LIST OF AUTHORS QUOTED
Aldington R. Death of a Hero. M., 1958.
Aldridge J. One Last Glimpse. Penguin Books, 1977.
Anderson Wood P. A Five-Colour Buick. Bantam Books, 1975.
ЛЕКСИКОЛОГИЯ АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА
Зав. редакцией Е. В. Рубина
Ответственные редакторы М. Н. Андреева, Е. В. Рубина
Редактор О. И. Ермакова
Художественное оформление
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