Composition - раздел Образование, Лексикология
This Type Of Word-Building, In Which New Words Are Produced B...
This type of word-building, in which new words are produced by combining two or more stems, is one of the three most productive types in Modern English, the other two are conversion and affixation. Compounds, though certainly fewer in quantity than derived or root words, still represent one of the most typical and specific features of English word-structure.
There are at least three aspects of composition that present special interest.
The first is the structural aspect. Compounds are not homogeneous in structure. Traditionally three types are distinguished: neutral, morphological and syntactic.
In neutral compounds the process of compounding is realized without any linking elements, by a mere juxtaposition of two stems, as in blackbird, shop-window, sunflower, bedroom, tallboy, etc. There are three subtypes of neutral compounds depending on the structure of the constituent stems.
The examples above represent the subtype which may be described as simple neutral compounds: they consist of simple affixless stems.
Compounds which have affixes in their structure are called derived or derivational compounds. E. g. absent-mindedness, blue-eyed, golden-haired, broad-shouldered, lady-killer, film-goer, music-lover, honey-mooner, first-nighter, late-comer, newcomer, early-riser, evil-doer. The productivity of this type is confirmed by a considerable number of comparatively recent formations, such as teenager, babysitter, strap-hanger, four-seater ("car or boat with four seats"), doubledecker ("a ship or bus with two decks"). Numerous nonce-words are coined on this pattern which is another proof of its high productivity: e. g. luncher-out ("a person who habitually takes his lunch in restaurants and not at Home"), goose-flesher ("murder story") or attention getter in the following fragment:
"Dad," I began ... "I'm going to lose my job." That should be an attention getter, I figured.
(From A Five-Colour Buick by P. Anderson Wood)
The third subtype of neutral compounds is called contracted compounds. These words have a shortened (contracted) stem in their structure: TV-set (-program, -show, -canal, etc.), V-day {Victory day), G-man (Government man "FBI agent"), H-bag (handbag), T-shirt, etc.
Morphological compounds are few in number. This 5type is non-productive. It is represented by words in which two compounding stems are combined by a linking vowel or consonant, e. g. Anglo-Saxon, Franko-Prussian, handiwork, handicraft, craftsmanship, Spokesman, statesman (see also p. 115). . In syntactic compounds (the term is arbitrary) we once more find a feature of specifically English word-structure. These words are formed from segments of speech, preserving in their structure numerous traces of syntagmatic relations typical of speech: articles, prepositions; adverbs, as in the nouns lily-of-the-valley, Jack-o f-all-trades, good-for-nothing, mother-in-law, sit-at-home. Syntactical relations and grammatical patterns current in present-day English can be clearly traced in the structures of such compound nouns as pick-me-up, know-all, know-nothing, go-between, get-together, whodunit. The last word (meaning "a detective story") was obviously coined from the ungrammatical variant of the word-group who (has} done it.
In this group of compounds, once more, we find a great number of neologisms, and whodunit is one of them. Consider, also, the two following fragments which make rich use of modern city traffic terms.
Randy managed to weave through a maze of one-way-streets, no-left-turns, and no-stopping-zones ...
(From A Five-Colour Buick by P. Anderson Wood)
"... you go down to the Department of Motor Vehicles tomorrow and take your behind-the-wheel test."
(Ibid.)
The structure of most compounds is transparent, as it were, and clearly betrays the origin of these words from word-combinations. The fragments below illustrate admirably the very process of coining nonce-words after the productive patterns of composition.
"Is all this really true?" he asked. "Or are you pulling my leg?"
... Charlie looked slowly around at each of the four old faces... They were quite serious. There was no sign of joking or leg-pulling on any of them.
(From Charlie and the Chocolate Factory by R. Dahl)
"I have decided that you are up to no good. I am well aware -that that is your natural condition. But I prefer you to be up to no good in London. Which is more used to up-to-no-gooders."
(From The French Lieutenant's Woman by J. Fowles)
"What if they capture us?" said Mrs. Bucket. "What if they shoot us?" said Grandma Georgina. "What if my beard were made of green spinach?" cried Mr. Wonka. "Bunkum and tommyrot! You'll never get anywhere if you go about what-iffing like that. ...We want no what-iffers around, right, Charlie?"
(From Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator by R. Dahl)
The first of the examples presents the nonce-word leg-pulling coined on the pattern of neutral derivational compounds. The what-iffing and what-iffers of the third extract seem to represent the same type, though there is something about the words clearly resembling syntactic compounds: their what-if-nucleus is one of frequent patterns of living speech. As to the up-to-no-gooders of the second example, it is certainly a combination of syntactic and derivational types, as it is made from a segment of speech which is held together by the -er suffix. A similar formation is represented by the nonce-word break fast-in-the-bedder ("a person who prefers to have his breakfast in bed").
* * *
Another focus of interest is the semantic aspect of compound words, that is, the question of correlations of the separate meanings of the constituent parts and the actual meaning of the compound. Or, to put it in easier terms: can the meaning of a compound word be regarded as the sum of its constituent meanings?
To try and answer this question, let us consider the following groups of examples.
(1) Classroom, bedroom, working-man, evening-gown, dining-room, sleeping-car,
reading-room, dancing-hall.
This group seems to represent compounds whose meanings can really be described as the sum of their constituent meanings. Yet, in the last four words we can distinctly detect a slight shift of meaning. The first component in these words, if taken as a free form, denotes an action or state of whatever or whoever is characterized by the word. Yet, a sleeping-car is not a car that sleeps (cf. a sleeping child), nor is a dancing-hail actually dancing (cf. dancing pairs).
The shift of meaning becomes much more pronounced in the second group of examples.
(2) Blackboard, blackbird, football, lady-killer, pick pocket, good-for-nothing, lazybones, chatterbox.
In these compounds one of the components (or both) has changed its meaning: a blackboard is neither a board nor necessarily black, football is not a ball but a game, a chatterbox not a box but a person, and a lady killer kills no one but is merely a man who fascinates women. It is clear that in all these compounds the meaning of the whole word cannot be defined as the sum of the constituent meanings. The process of change of meaning in some such words has gone so far that the meaning of one or both constituents is no longer in the least associated with the current meaning of the corresponding free form, and yet the speech community quite calmly accepts such seemingly illogical word groups as a white blackbird, pink bluebells or an entirely confusing statement like: Blackberries are red when they are green.
Yet, despite a certain readjustment in the semantic structure of the word, the meanings of the constituents of the compounds of this second group are still transparent: you can see through them the meaning of the whole complex. Knowing the meanings of the constituents a student of English can get a fairly clear idea of what the whole word means even if he comes across it for the first time. At least, it is clear that a blackbird is some kind of bird and that a good-for-nothing is not meant as a compliment.
(3) In the third group of compounds the process of deducing the meaning of the whole from those of the constituents is impossible. The key to meaning seems to have been irretrievably lost: ladybird is not a bird, but an insect, tallboy not a boy but a piece of furniture, bluestocking, on the contrary, is a person, whereas bluebottle may denote both a flower and an insect but never a bottle.
Similar enigmas are encoded in such words as man-of-war ("warship"), merry-to-round ("carousel"), mother-of-pearl ("irridescent substance forming the inner layer of certain shells"), horse-marine ("a person who is unsuitable for his job or position"), butter-fingers ("clumsy person; one who is apt to drop things"), wall-flower "a girl who is not invited to dance at a party"), whodunit ("detective story"), straphanger(1. "a passenger who stands in a crowded bus or underground train and holds onto a strap or other support suspended from above"; 2. "a book of light genre, trash; the kind of book one is likely to read when travelling in buses or trains").
The compounds whose meanings do not correspond to the separate meanings of their constituent parts (2nd and 3rd group listed above) are called idiomatic compounds, in contrast to the first group known as non-idiomatic compounds.
The suggested subdivision into three groups is based on the degree of semantic cohesion of the constituent parts, the third group representing the extreme case of cohesion where the constituent meanings blend to produce an entirely new meaning.
The following joke rather vividly shows what happens if an idiomatic compound is misunderstood as non-idiomatic.
Patient: They tell me, doctor, you are a perfect lady-killer.
Dосtоr: Oh, no, no! I assure you, my dear madam, I make no distinction between the sexes.
In this joke, while the woman patient means to compliment the doctor on his being a handsome and irresistible man, he takes or pretends to take the word lady-killer literally, as a sum of the direct meanings of its constituents.
The structural type of compound words and the word-building type of composition have certain advantages for communication purposes.
Composition is not quite so flexible a way of coining new words as conversion but flexible enough as is convincingly shown by the examples of nonce-words given above. Among compounds are found numerous expressive and colourful words. They are also comparatively laconic, absorbing into one word an idea that otherwise would have required a whole phrase (cf. The hotel was full of week-enders and The hotel was full of people spending the week-end there).
Both the laconic and the expressive value of compounds can be well illustrated by English compound adjectives denoting colours (cf. snow-white — as white as snow).
In the following extract a family are discussing which colour to paint their new car.
"Hey," Sally yelled, "could you paint it canary yellow, Fred?"
"Turtle green," shouted my mother, quickly getting into the spirit of the thing. "Mouse grey," Randy suggested. "Dove white, maybe?" my mother asked. "Rattlesnake brown," my father said with a dead-pan look...
"Forget it, all of you," I announced. "My Buick is going to be peacock blue."
(From A Five-Colour Buick by P. Anderson Wood)
It is obvious that the meaning of all these "multi-coloured" adjectives is based on comparison: the second constituent of the adjective is the name of a colour used in its actual sense and the first is the name of an object (animal, flower, etc.) with which the comparison is drawn. The pattern immensely extends the possibilities of denoting all imaginable shades of each colour, the more so that the pattern is productive and a great number of nonce-words are created after it. You can actually coin an adjective comparing the colour of a defined object with almost anything on earth: the pattern allows for vast creative experiments. This is well shown in the fragment given above. If canary yellow, peacock blue, dove white are quite "normal" in the language and registered by dictionaries, turtle green and rattlesnake brown1 are certainly typical nonce-words, amusing inventions of the author aimed at a humorous effect.
Sometimes it is pointed out, as a disadvantage, that the English language has only one word blue for two different colours denoted in Russian by синий and голубой.
But this seeming inadequacy is compensated by a large number of adjectives coined on the pattern of comparison such as navy blue, cornflower blue, peacock blue, chicory blue, sapphire blue, china blue, sky-blue, turquoise blue, forget-me-not blue, heliotrope blue, powder-blue. This list can be supplemented by compound adjectives which also denote different shades of blue, but are not built on comparison: dark blue, light blue, pale blue, electric blue, Oxford blue, Cambridge blue.
* * *
A further theoretical aspect of composition is the criteria for distinguishing between a compound and a word-combination.
This question has a direct bearing on the specific feature of the structure of most English compounds which has already been mentioned: with the exception of the rare morphological type, they originate directly from word-combinations and are often homonymous to them: cf. a tall boy — a tallboy.
In this case the graphic criterion of distinguishing between a word and a word-group seems to be sufficiently convincing, yet in many cases it cannot wholly be relied on. The spelling of many compounds, tallboy among them, can be varied even within the same book. In the case of tallboy the semantic criterion seems more reliable, for the striking difference in the meanings of the word and the word-group certainly points to the highest degree of semantic cohesion in the word: tallboy does not even denote a person, but a piece of furniture, a chest of drawers supported by a low stand.
Moreover, the word-group a tall boy conveys two concepts(1. a young male person; 2. big in size), whereas the word tallboy expresses one concept.
Yet the semantic criterion alone cannot prove anything as phraseological units also convey a single concept and some of them are characterized by a high degree of semantic cohesion (see Ch. 12).
The phonetic criterion for compounds may be treated as that of a single stress. The criterion is convincingly applicable to many compound nouns, yet does not work with compound adjectives:
cf. 'slowcoach, 'blackbird, 'tallboy,
but: 'blue-'eyed, 'absent-'minded, 'ill- 'mannered.
Still, it is true that the morphological structure of these adjectives and their hyphenated spelling leave no doubt about their status as words and not word-groups.
Morphological and syntactic criteria can also be applied to compound words in order to distinguish them from word-groups.
In the word-group a tall boy each of the constituents is independently open to grammatical changes peculiar to its own category as a part of speech: They were the tallest boys in their form.
Between the constituent parts of the word-group other words can be inserted: a tall handsome boy.
The compound tallboy — and, in actual fact, any other compound — is not subject to such changes. The first component is grammatically invariable; the plural form ending is added to the whole unit: tallboys. No word can be inserted between the components, even with the compounds which have a traditional separate graphic form.
All this leads us to the conclusion that, in most cases, only several criteria (semantic, morphological, syntactic, phonetic, graphic) can convincingly classify a lexical unit as either a compound word or a word group.
Все темы данного раздела:
English Lexicology
Рекомендовано Министерством образования Российской Федерации
в качестве учебного пособия для студентов высших учебных заведений, обучающихся по педагогическ
Антрушина Г. В., Афанасьева О. В., Морозова Н. Н.
А72 Лексикология английского языка: Учеб. пособие для студентов. — 3-е изд., стереотип. — М.: Дрофа, 2001. — 288 с.
ISBN 5—7107—4955—9
Учебное пособие включает раз
Contents
INTRODUCTION. What Is a Word? What Is Lexicology?...................................... 5
CHAPTER 1. Which Word Should We Choose, Formal or Informal?..................... 9
CHAPTE
Preface
In this book the reader will find the fundamentals of the word theory and of the main problems associated with English vocabulary, its characteristics and subdivisions. Each chapter
INTRODUCTION
What Is a Word? What Is Lexicology?
What's in a name? that which we call a rose
By any other name would smell as sweet...
The Main Lexicological Problems
Two of these have already been underlined. The problemof word-building is associated with prevailing morphological word-structures and with processes of making new words. Semantics
Consider your answers to the following.
1. In what way can one analyse a word a) socially, b) linguistically?
2. What are the structural aspects of the word?
3. What is the external structure of the word
CHAPTER 1
Which Word Should We Choose, Formal or Informal?
Just as there is formal and informal dress, so there is formal and informal speech. One is not supposed to
Informal Style
Informal vocabulary is used in one's immediate circle: family, relatives or friends. One uses informal words when at home or when feeling at home.
Informal style is relaxed
Colloquial Words
Among other informal words, colloquialisms are the least exclusive: they are used by everybody, and their sphere of communication is comparatively wide, at least of litera
Dialect Words
H. W. Fowler defines a dialect as "a variety of a language which prevails in a district, with local peculiarities of vocabulary, pronunciation and phrase".[19] England is
I. Consider your answers to the following.
1. What determines the choice of stylistically marked words in each particular situation?
2. In what situations are informal words used?
3. What are the main kinds
III. a. Read the following extract.
A young man, Freddie by name, had invited a pretty young girl April to a riverside picnic. April could not come and sent her little sister to keep Freddie company.
It was n
IV. Read the following jokes. Write out the informal words and word-groups and say whether they are colloquial, slang or dialect.
1. A Yankee passenger in an English train was beguiling his fellow passengers with tall stories1 and remarked: "We can start with a twenty-story apartment house this month, and
Learned Words
These words are mainly associated with the printed page. It is in this vocabulary stratum that poetry and fiction find their main resources.
The term "learned" is
Archaic and Obsolete Words
These words stand close to the "learned" words, particularly to the modes of poetic diction. Learned words and archaisms are both associated with the printed page. Yet, as
Professional Terminology
Hundreds of thousands of words belong to special scientific, professional or trade terminological systems and are not used or even understood by people outside the particular specia
Basic Vocabulary
These words are stylistically neutral, and, in this respect, opposed to formal and informal words described above. Their stylistic neutrality makes it possible to use them in all ki
I. Consider your answers to the following.
1. Where are formal words used?
2. Are learned words used only in books? Which type of learned words, do you think, is especially suitable for verbal communication? Which i
III.a. Make up a list of literary learned words selected from the following.
1. Absent, he was still unescapably with her, like a guilty conscience. Her solitudes were endless meditations on the theme of him. Sometimes the longing for his tangible presence w
The Etymology of English Words.1
Are All English Words Really English?
As a matter of fact, they are — if we regard them in the light of present-day English. If, however, their origins are
I. Latin Affixes
Nouns
The suffix -ion
communion, legion, opinion, session, union, etc.
The suffix -tion
II. French Affixes
Nouns
The suffix
-ance
arrogance, endurance, hindrance, etc.
The suffix
-erace
The Etymological Structure of English Vocabulary
The native element1
The borrowed element
I. Indo-European element
II. Germanic element
III. Englis
I. Consider your answers to the following.
1. How can you account for the fact that English vocabulary contains such an immense number of words of foreign origin?
2. What is the earliest group of English borrowings?
III. Read the following jokes. Explain the etymology of the italicized words. If necessary consult a dictionary.1
1. He dropped around to the girl's house and as he ran up the steps he was confronted by her little brother.
"Hi, Billy."
V. In the following sentences find examples of Latin borrowings; identify the period of borrowings.
1. The garden here consisted of a long smooth lawn with two rows of cherry trees planted in the grass. 2. They set to pork-pies, cold potatoes, hard-boiled eggs, cold bacon, ham, cr
VII. Study the map of Great Britain and find the names of places, rivers and hills of Celtic origin.
VIII. In the sentences given below find the examples of Scandinavian borrowings. How can the Scandinavian borrowings be identified?
1. He w
IX. Read the following jokes and identify the Scandinavian borrowings.
1. "Very sorry, Mr. Brown, but the coffee is exhausted," the landlady announced.
"Not at all surprised," came back Mr. Brown. "I've seen it growing
X. Copy out the examples of Norman and Parisian borrowings from the following passage. Describe the structural peculiarities of these words.
1. It was while they were having coffee that a waitress brought a message to their table. 2.1 knew nothing about the film world and imagined it to be a continuous ferment of persona
The Roman Occupation
For some reason the Romans neglected to overrun the country with fire and sword, though they had both of these; in fact after the Conquest they did not mingle with the Britons at all but lived a se
CHAPTER 4
The Etymology of English Words (continued)
Why Are Words Borrowed?
This question partially concerns the histor
International Words
It is often the case that a word is borrowed by several languages, and not just by one. Such words usually convey concepts which are significant in the field of communication.
Etymological Doublets
The words shirt and skirt etymologically descend from the same root. Shirt is a native word, and skirt (as the initial sk suggests) is a Scandinav
Translation-Loans
The term loan-word is equivalent to borrowing. By translation-loans we indicate borrowings of a special kind. They are not taken into the vocabulary of another languag
III. Explain the etymology of the italicized words; identify the stage of assimilation.
1. Obviously, chere madame, the thief would take care to recover the money before he returned the dog. 2. Heyward went to the kitchen for a glass of milk. 3. It was a
V. In the following sentences find one of a pair of etymological doublets and name the missing member of the pair.
1.1 led Mars (a dog) into the shadow of the building and looked around me. 2. "Unreliable", he said, "those fancy locks. Always getting jammed, aren't they?&qu
VII. Read the following text. Copy out the international words. State to what sphere of human activity they belong.
British Dramatists
In the past 20 years there has been a considerable increase in the number of new playwrights in Britain and this has been encouraged by t
VIII. Read the following jokes. Identify examples of international words.
1. Genius is one percent inspiration and ninety-nine percent perspiration. 2. A psychologist is a man who watches everybody rise when a beautiful girl enters the room. 3. An expert
IX. State the origin of the following translation-loans. Give more examples.
Five-year plan, wonder child, masterpiece, first dancer, collective farm, fellow-traveller.
X. What is the difference between the words in the following pairs? Anal
XIII. Read the following extract. State the etymology of the italicized words. Comment upon their stylistic characteristics.
The Oxford accent exists, but it defies definition. If is not, as the French think, the kind of English which is spoken within a twenty mile radius of the city.
How English Words Are Made. Word-Building1
Before turning to the various processes of making words, it would be useful to analyse the related problem of the composition of words, i. e. of their constituent parts.
If
Affixation
The process of affixation consists in coining a new word by adding an affix or several affixes to some root morpheme. The role of the affix in this procedure is Very importan
Some Productive Affixes
Noun-forming suffixes
-er, -ing, -ness, -ism1 (materialism), -ist1 (impressionist), -ance
Adj
Some Non-Productive Affixes
Noun-forming suffixes
-th,-hood
Adjective-forming suffixes
-ly, -some, -en, -ous
Semantics of Affixes
The morpheme, and therefore affix, which is a type of morpheme, is generally defined as the smallest indivisible component of the word possessing a meaning of its own. Meanin
I. Consider your answers to the following.
1. What are the main ways of enriching the English vocabulary?
2. What are the principal productive ways of word-building in English?
3. What do we mean by derivat
B. Those formed with the help of non-productive affixes. Explain the etymology of each borrowed affix.
1. Willie was invited to a party, where refreshments were bountifully served.
"Won't you have something more, Willie?" the hostess said.
"No, t
IV. Explain the etymology and productivity of the affixes given below. Say what parts of speech can be formed with their help.
-ness, -ous, -ly, -y, -dom, -ish, -tion, -ed, -en, -ess, -or, -er, -hood, -less, -ate, -ing, -al, -ful, un-, re-, im (in)-, dis-, over-, ab-
V. Write out fro
IX. Find eases of conversion in the following sentences.
1. The clerk was eyeing him expectantly. 2. Under the cover of that protective din he was able to toy with a steaming dish which his waiter had brought. 3. An aggressive man battled
XI. Explain the semantic correlations within the following pairs of words.
Shelter — to shelter, park — to park, groom — to groom, elbow — to elbow, breakfast — to breakfast, pin — to pin, trap — to trap, fish — to fish, head — to head, nurse — to nurse.
XIII. Read the following joke, explain the type of word-building in the italicized words and say everything you can about the way they were made.
A successful old lawyer tells the following story about the beginning of his professional life:
"I had just installed myself in my office, had put i
Semi-Affixes
Consider the following examples.
"... The Great Glass Elevator is shockproof, waterproof, bombproof, bulletproof, and Knidproof1..."
(From Charlie and
Shortening (Contraction)
This comparatively new way of word-building has achieved a high degree of productivity nowadays, especially in American English.
Shortenings (or contracted/curtailed words)
Sound-Imitation (Onomatopoeia1)
Words coined by this interesting type of word-building are made by imitating different kinds of sounds that may be produced by animals, birds, insects, human beings and inanimate ob
Reduplication
In reduplication new words are made by doubling a stem, either without any phonetic changes as in bye-bye (coil, for good-bye} or with a variation of the root-v
Back-Formation (Reversion)
The earliest examples of this type of word-building are the verb to beg that was made from the French borrowing beggar, to burgle from burglar, to cobble from
I. Consider your answers to the following.
1. What is understood by composition? What do we call words made by this type of word-building?
2. Into what groups and subgroups can compounds be subdivided structurally?
A. Simple neutral compounds. B. Neutral derived compounds. C. Neutral contracted compounds.
An air-conditioned hall; a glass-walled room; to fight against H-bomb; a loud revolver-shot; a high-pitched voice; a heavy topcoat; a car's windshield; a snow-white handkerchief; bi
VIII. Find shortenings in the jokes and extracts given below and specify the method of their formation.
1. Brown: But, Doc, I got bad eyes! Doctor: Don't worry. We'll put you up front.5 You won't miss a thing.
2. "How was your guard duty yester
CHAPTER 7
What Is "Meaning"?
Language is the amber in which
a thousand precious and subtle
thoughts have been safely
embedded an
Polysemy. Semantic Structure of the Word
The semantic structure of the word does not present an indissoluble unity (that is, actually, why it is referred to as "structure"), nor does it necessarily stand for one
Types of Semantic Components
The leading semantic component in the semantic structure of a word is usually termed denotative component (also, the term referential component may be used). The denot
Meaning and Context
In the beginning of the paragraph entitled "Polysemy" we discussed the advantages and disadvantages of this linguistic phenomenon. One of the most important "drawback
I. Consider your answers to the following.
1. What is understood by "semantics"? Explain the term "polysemy".
2. Define polysemy as a linguistic phenomenon. Illustrate your answer with your own e
II. Define the meanings of the words in the following sentences. Say how the meanings of the same word are associated one with another.
1.I walked into Hyde Park, fell flat upon the grass and almost immediately fell asleep. 2. a) 'Hello', I said, and thrust my hand through the bars, whereon the
V. Explain the basis for the following jokes. Use the dictionary when in doubt.
1. Caller: I wonder if I can see your mother, little boy. Is she engaged9
Willie: Engaged! She's married.
2. Booking Clerk
VII. Read the following jokes. Analyse the collocability of the italicized words and state its relationship with the meaning.
1. Ladу (at party): Where is that pretty maid who was passing our cocktails a while ago?
Hostess: Oh, you are looking for a drink?
Lady: No, I'm l
How Words Develop New Meanings
It has been mentioned that the systems of meanings of polysemantic words evolve gradually. The older a word is, the better developed is its semantic structure. The normal pattern of
Causes of Development of New Meanings
The first group of causes is traditionally termed historical or extra-linguistic.
Different kinds of changes in a nation's social life, in its culture, knowledge, te
The Process of Development and Change of Meaning
The second question we must answer in this chapter is how new meanings develop. To find the answer to this question we must investigate the inner mechanism of this process, o
Transference Based on Resemblance (Similarity)
This type of transference is also referred to as linguistic metaphor. A new meaning appears as a result of associating two objects (phenomena, qualities, etc.) due to their o
Transference Based on Contiguity
Another term for this type of transference is linguistic metonymy. The association is based upon subtle psychological links between different objects and phenomena, sometimes
Narrowing (or Specialization) of Meaning
Sometimes, the process of transference may result in a considerable change in range of meaning. For instance, the verb to arrive (French borrowing) began its life in English
II. Read the following extracts and explain the semantic processes by which the italicized words acquired their meanings
1. 'Bureau', a desk, was borrowed from French in the 17thc. In Modern French (and English) it means not only the desk but also the office itself and the authority exercised b
IV. Explain the logical associations in the following groups of meaning for the same words. Define the type of transference which has taken place.
1. The wing of a bird — the wing of a building; the eye of a man — the eye of a needle; the hand of a child — the hand of a clock; the heart of a man — the heart of the matter; the
V. Analyse the process of development of new meanings in the italicized words in the examples given below.
1.I put the letter well into the mouth of the box and let it go and it fell turning over and over like an autumn leaf. 2. Those v/ho had been the head of the line paus
VI. Explain the basis for the following jokes. Trace the logical associations between the different meanings of the same word.
1. Father was explaining to his little son the fundamentals of astronomy.
"That's a comet."
"A what?"
"A comet. You know what a c
VII. In the examples given below identify the eases of widening and narrowing of meaning.
1. While the others waited the elderly executive filled his pipe and lit it. 2. Finn was watching the birds. 3. The two girls took hold of one another, one acting gentleman,
Words of the Same Form
Homonyms are words which are identical in sound and spelling, or, at least, in one of these aspects, but different in their meaning.
E. g. bank, n. — a sho
Sources of Homonyms
One source of homonyms has already been mentioned: phonetic changes which words undergo in the course of their historical development. As a result of such changes, two or mor
Classification of Homonyms
The subdivision of homonyms into homonyms proper, homophones and homographs is certainly not precise enough and does not reflect certain important features of these wo
I. Consider your answers to the following.
1. Which words do we call homonyms?
2. Why can't homonyms be regarded as expressive means of the language?
3. What is the traditional classification of homonyms? I
II. Find the homonyms in the following extracts. Classify them into homonyms proper, homographs and homophones.
1. "Mine is a long and a sad tale!" said the Mouse, turning to Alice, and sighing. "It is a long tail, certainly," said Alice, looking down with wonder at the Mo
IV. a. Find the homonyms proper for the following words; give their Russian equivalents.
1. bared — a company of musicians. 2. seal — a warm-blooded, fish-eating sea-animal, found chiefly in cold regions. 3. ear — the grain-bearing spike of a cereal plant,
C. Find the homographs to the following words and transcribe both.
1. To bow — to bend the head or body. 2. wind — air in motion. 3. to tear— to pull apart by force. 4. to desert -— to go away from a person or place. 5.
B. Explain the homonyms which form the basis for the following jokes. Classify the types as in part a.
1. An observing man claims to have discovered the colour of the wind. He says he went out and found it blew.
2. Child: Mummy, what makes the Tower of Pisa lean?
Fa
VII. Explain how the following italicized words became homonyms.
1. a) Eliduc's overlord was the king of Brittany, who was very fond of the knight, b) "I haven't slept a wink all night, my eyes just wouldn't shut." 2. a) T
A) etymology, b) word-building, c) stylistic characteristics
"But I love the Italians," continued Mrs. Blair. "They are so obliging — though even that has its embarrassing side. You ask
A) stylistic characteristics, b) semantics, e) word-building.
Once in the driving seat, with reins handed to him, and blinking over his pale old cheeks in the full sunlight, he took a slow look round. Adolf was already up
CHAPTER 10
Synonyms:
Are Their Meanings the Same or Different?
Synonymy is one of modern linguistics' most controversial problems. The very
Criteria of Synonymy
Synonymy is associated with some theoretical problems which at present are still an object of controversy. Probably, the most controversial among these is the problem of criteria of
Types of Synonyms
The only existing classification system for synonyms was established by Academician V. V. Vinogradov, the famous Russian scholar. In his classification system there are three types
Types of Connotations
I. The connotation of degree or intensity can be traced in such groups of synonyms as to surprise — to astonish — to amaze — to astound;1 to satisfy — to please
I. Consider your answers to the following.
1. Say why synonyms are one of the language's most important expressive means. Illustrate your answer with examples.
2. Synonyms are sometimes described as words with "
II. The sentences given below contain synonyms. Write them out in groups and explain the difference where the words are familiar.
1. a) While Kitty chatted gaily with her neighbours she watched Walter, b) Ashenden knew that R. had not sent for him to talk about weather and crops, c) As he spoke he rose from the bed. d) He is
VI. Single out the denotative and connotative components of meanings of the synonyms in the examples given below.
l. a) At the little lady's command they all three smiled, b) George, on hearing the story grinned. 2. a) Forsyte — the best palate in London. The palate that in a sens
VIII. Say why the italicized synonyms in the examples given below are not interchangeable.
1. a) The little boys stood glaring at each other ready to start a fight, b) The Greek myth runs that Narcissus gazed at his own reflection in the water until he fell
B. synonyms differentiated by connotation of manner.
1. Besides, Jack is a notorious domesticity for John! 2. His eyes sparkled with amusement. 3. "Joey-Joey...!" I said staggering unevenly towards the p
XII. Within the following synonymic groups single out words with emotive connotations.
1. Fear— terror— horror. 2. look— stare— glare — gaze — glance. 3. love — admire — adore — worship. 4. alone — single — solitary — lonely. 5. tremble — shiver — shudder — shake. 6.
The Dominant Synonym
The attentive reader will have noticed that in the previous chapter much use was made of the numerous synonyms of the verb to look, and yet, the verb to look itself wa
Euphemisms
There are words in every language which people instinctively avoid because they are considered indecent, indelicate, rude, too direct or impolite. As the "offensive" refer
Antonyms
We use the term antonyms to indicate words of the same category of parts of speech which have contrasting meanings, such as hot — cold, light —- dark, happiness — sorrow,
I. Consider your answers to the following.
1. Which word in a synonymic group is considered to be the dominant synonym? What are its characteristic features?
2. Can the dominant synonym be substituted for certain ot
II. Find the dominant synonym in the following groups of synonyms. Explain your choice.
1. to glimmer — to glisten — to blaze — to shine — to sparkle— to flash— to gleam. 2. to glare— to gaze — to peep — to look — to stare — to glance. 3. to astound — to surprise — to
VI. Find the euphemisms in the following sentences and jokes. Name the words for which they serve as euphemistic substitutes.
1. Policeman (to intoxicated man who is trying to fit his key to a lamp-post): I'm afraid there's nobody home there tonight. Man: Mus' be. Mus' be. Theresh a light upstairsh.
VIII. Find antonyms in the following jokes and extracts and describe the resultant stylistic effect.
1.Policeman (holding up his hand}: Stop!
Visitor: What's the matter?
P.: Why are you driving on the right side of the road?
V.: Do you want me to r
CHAPTER 12
Phraseology: Word-Groups with Transferred Meanings
Phraseological units, or idioms, as they are called by most western scholars, represent what can probab
How to Distinguish Phraseological Units from Free Word-Groups
This is probably the most discussed — and the most controversial — problem in the field of phraseology. The task of distinguishing between free word-groups and phraseological units
Proverbs
Consider the following examples of proverbs:
We never know the value of water till the well is dry.
You can take the horse to the water, but you cannot m
I. Consider your answers to the following.
1. What do v/e mean when we say that an idiom has a "double" meaning?
2. Why is it very important to use idioms with care? Should foreign-language students use th
V. Substitute phraseological units incorporating the names of colours for the italicized words.
1. I'm feeling rather miserable today. 2. He spends all his time on bureaucratic routine. 3. A thing like that happens very rarely. 4. You can talk ti
IX. Say what structural variations are possible in the following phraseological units. If in doubt, consult the dictionaries.
To catch at a straw; a big bug; the last drop; to build a castle in the air; to weather the storm; to get the upper hand; to run for one's life; to do wonders; to run a risk; just t
Principles of Classification
It would be interesting now to look at phraseological units from a different angle, namely: how are all these treasures of the language approached by the linguistic science? The ver
I. Consider your answers to the following.
1. What is the basis of the traditional and oldest principle for classifying phraseological units?
2. What other criteria can be used for the classification of phraseologic
B. Give at least fifteen examples of your own to illustrate the phraseological units in your list.
III. a. Read the following text. Compile a list of the phraseological units used in it.1 Classify them according to Academician Vinogradov's classification system for phraseological units.
V. Complete the following sentences, using the phraseological units given in the list below. Translate them into Russian.
1. If I pay my rent, I won't have any money to buy , food. I'm between ——. 2. It's no use grumbling about your problems — we're all ——. 3. He's sold his house and his business to go
VII. Complete the following sentences, using the words from the list below. Translate the phraseological units into Russian.
1. She was so embarrassed that she went as red as a ——. 2.1 can carry the suitcase easily, it's as light as a ——. 3. The room is as warm as ——. 4. My sister does so many things that
VIII. In the examples given below identify the phraseological units and classify them on the semantic principle.
1. The operation started badly and everyone was in a temper throughout. 2.1 know a man who would love meeting you. The perfect nut for you to crack your teeth on. 3.1 wish I had you
More Precise
Two aviation meteorologists were engaged in shop talk.
"No, I don't watch the TV weather commentary. I reckon you get better weather on the radio," said on
Do Americans Speak English
or American?
In one of his stories Oscar Wilde said that the English "have really everything in common with America nowadays, except, of course, langu
Vocabulary of American English
It is quite true that the vocabulary used by American speakers, has distinctive features of its own. More than that: there are whole groups of words which belong to American vocabul
The Grammar System of American English
Here we are likely to find even fewer divergencies than in the vocabulary system.
The first distinctive feature is the use of the auxiliary verb will in the first pe
I. Consider your answers to the following.
1. In what different ways might the language spoken in the USA be viewed linguistically?
2. What are the peculiarities of the vocabulary of English spoken in the USA?
XIII. Bead the following extract. Explain the difference in the meanings of the italicized words in American and British English.
In America just as in English, you see the same shops with the same boards and windows in every town and village.
Shopping, however, is an art of its own and you have to le
XVIII. Read the following passage. Give some more examples illustrating the differences in grammar between the two varieties of English.
Q: I thought Americans always said gotten when they used the verb get as a full verb. But you did say I've got your point, didn't you?
M: Yes, I did. Y
Supplementary Material
To Chapters 3, 4
From "GROWTH AND STRUCTURE
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE"
by Otto Jespersen
Ch. IV.
Sources
1. Амосова Н. Н. Английская контекстология. Л., 1968.
2. Амосова Н. Н. Основы английской фразеологии. Л., 1963.
3. Аракин В. Д. Очерки по исто
DICTIONARIES
43. Апресян Ю. Д., Ботякова В. В., Латышева Т. Э. и др. Англо-русский синонимический словарь. М., 1998.
44. Аракин В. Д. и др. Англо-русский словарь. М., 1997
LIST OF AUTHORS QUOTED
Aldington R. Death of a Hero. M., 1958.
Aldridge J. One Last Glimpse. Penguin Books, 1977.
Anderson Wood P. A Five-Colour Buick. Bantam Books, 1975.
ЛЕКСИКОЛОГИЯ АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА
Зав. редакцией Е. В. Рубина
Ответственные редакторы М. Н. Андреева, Е. В. Рубина
Редактор О. И. Ермакова
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