С — consonant; "V — vowel 126 - раздел Иностранные языки, ПРАКТИЧЕСКАЯ ФОНЕТИКА АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА Table Ii, Continued
Words...
Table II, continued
Words
| Strong Forms
| Weak Forms
| Examples
|
she
| Jb
| Tr.fi. /"
| iiz,pnti
|
we
| wi:
| wi*, wi, wi
| wi avgrt
|
me
| mi:
| mi*, mi, mi
| "*let mi xsi:
|
her
| пэ: + С
| hv, ha, a + V
| "*nikzha,SAn
|
пз:г + V
| ПЭГ, ЭГ + V
| "*tclhar,a:I
|
his
| hiz
| IZ
| ai ~*laik iz^feis
|
him
| him
| im
| "*send im a,wj:d
|
us
| AS
| 3S, S
| "*li:v as in ,pi:s
|
them
| flem
| flam, эт
| ~*a:sk dam ta kdu- it
|
your
| ja: + С
| jr.ja, ja + С
| ~*hiazja,hast
|
jar + V
| J3% jar, jar
| aim jar ~*3uld (frend
|
our
| aua + С
| аэ + С
| "*braunz aa,neiba
|
auar + V
| aar + V
| hiz aar ~* suld v frend
|
Verbs
|
|
|
|
be
| bi:
| biJ, bi, bi
| "* d3ont bi j no:ti
|
been
| bun
| biJn. bin, bin
| aivbin ,610^10
|
am
| xm
| m — after f, am
| aim vtaiad
|
are
| a- + С
| a; a + С
| jua4leit
|
a:r + V
| ат, эг + V
| juar a,bun
|
Note: The sound [hj is not dropped in the words Ле. him, his, her, has, have, had at the beginning of intonation groups or sentences.
Table II. continued
Words
| Strong Forms
| Weak Forms
| Examples
|
is
| 1Z
| z — after voiced con sonants and vowels
| "*wcaz ,nik
|
s — after voiceless consonants
| oils ,rait
|
iz — after s, z, J, 3,
| da~*haus iz tla:dj
|
was
| WDZ
| W3Z
| ~*wot waz jrorj
|
were
| W3: + С ws:r + V
| W3-, W3, W3 + С
W3T, W3r, war + V
| Да "* tri:z wa xgri:n da "*baiz war jDnist
|
have
| haev
| haev, av, v — after personal pronouns
| da "*ka:zav vstopt
|
has
| haez
| haz, az, z — after
voiced consonants
and vowels
s — after voiceless
consonants
| из ~*dokta haz (клт "'dSskSjkAin
|
had
| haed
| had, ad, d — after personal pronouns
| Vnik had 'finijt it bai ,faiv
|
can
| kaen
| kan, kn
| dei kan ,stei
|
could
| kud
| kad, kd
| Oai kad , faun
|
must
| тля
| mast, mas
| ai mast xwa:n im
|
will
| Wll
|
| fleil a,gri:
|
would
| wud
| wad, ad, d — after personal pronouns
| oa "*дз:1 wad 4stei
|
shall
| /xl
| Jal, J] — after personal pronouns
| wijl ,wa:k
|
should
| Jud
| Jad./d — after personal pronouns
| ai Jd ""Mai к ta (stei
|
do
| du:
| dua, du, du, da
| "* wot da oei ,пзи
|
does
| d*z
| daz
| "* wen daz 1 Кклт
|
Table II. continued
Г Words
| Strong Forms
| Weak Forms
| Examples
|
Conjunctions and
| xnd
| and, an, n
| beikn and ,egz
|
that
| est
| fat
| jo ** пзо flat joa , n>rj
|
but
| bAt
| bat
| bat "* wai v not
|
than
| <Jaen
| flan, dn
| its~*w3:madan ,jestadi
|
as
| aez
| az
| зг "*su:n эг vpDSibl
|
or
| э: + С э:г + V
| э э, а + С эт, эг, а + V
| ~* red э j wait ~* torn эг ,sen
|
Particles to
| ta
| ta + С
| ~*trai ta vdu:it
|
to + V
| "* trai to j it it
|
there
| дээ
| йэ + С
дзт + V
| da wj (letaz вага jtfildrsn
|
The weak forms of the words listed in Table 11 should be used in unstressed positions.
The strong forms of auxiliary and modal verbs, personal and possessive pronouns and form-words are by far more rarely used. Fhey are used in their strong forms when they are said in isolation, when they become the communicative centres of utterances. The following cases should be also remembered as the iraditional use of strong forms in the English language.
Prepositions have their strong forms though they might remain unstressed:
(a) at the very end of an intonation group or phrase, eg
VVTiar are you looking at? ["* wnt э ju ^lukio act].
(b) at the end of an intonation group or phrase when they are
followed by the unstressed pronoun. Monosyllabic prepositions
ire either stressed or not, according to the rhythmic pattern of
I he phrase, eg
I'm not talking to you. [aim ~* not ^takin tu: ju]
but [aim ^rmt 'takirj ta vju:]
Polysyllabic prepositions followed by a pronoun at the end of phrase are stressed as a rule, eg
lave a look under it. j^haev э 'luk хлпс1эг it].
Auxiliary and modal verbs have their strong forms:
(a) at the end of an intonation group or a phrase whether
tressed or not, eg
Vho has done it? — Mary has [хтсэп hsezj. ire you free? — / am (ai xaeml.
(b) At the beginning of general and alternative questions in
areful colloquial style, while in rapid colloquial style they are
mstressed and reduced, eg
Ton you get it by tomorrow? p-kasn ju 'get it bai ta.mDreu], mt: Have you got any matches? [hav ju "* got eni .maetfiz].
(c) In contracted negative forms, eg
don't know the man. [ai ~* d3unt ,пзи дэ masnj.
The following form-words should be remembered as having 10 weak forms whatsoever: what, where, when, how, which, on, n, with, then.
The verb to have used as a content verb in the meaning of to possess' has no weak forms (whether stressed or not) though )ften unstressed, eg
have a little brother [ai haev э ~* litl ,Ьглдэ].
The demonstrative pronoun that is never reduced while the ronjunction that is, eg
know that (ai ,пзи daet],
jut: / know that he is here. [ai "* пзи dot hiz ,hia].
Neither are reduced the absolute forms of possessive pro-louns, eg.
Hie ball-pen is mine. [бэ "* Ьэ:1 pen iz ,mam].
All the form-words, auxiliary and modal verbs, personal and possessive pronouns are generally stressed and consequently lave their strong forms in case they become the logical centres Df phrases, eg
I'm speaking of your work, not of your sister's, {aim ~* splkin э Jo: w3:k | ~* not av ja xsistaz].
Comparison with Russian.Russian speech is characterized by different rhythmical structure. Personal and possessive pronouns, auxiliary and modal verbs are often stressed in Russian, cf
By the ~* time we ,get there | it'll be "* too ^late.
К тому времени как мы туд& доберёмся, | будет уже
слишком пбздно.
Mistakes of Russian Learners.Russian students of English fail to use weak forms correctly. On the one hand they introduce stiong forms in unstressed positions. On the other hand they replace strong forms by weak forms in places where there should be no,reduction in the unstressed position. Careful practice of form-words in various accentual patterns is desirable.
Все темы данного раздела:
TO THE STUDENT
When a student can reproduce the natural flow of living speech he will certainly feel an artist's satisfaction. To achieve it three things are necessary: (1) to practise intelligently; (2) to unde
Chapter 1. THE ORGANS OF SPEECH AND THEIR WORK
In any language people speak (if they have no physical defects) using their organs of speech (Fig. 1).
••••-; Hard Palate
Fig. 1.
Larynx
Vocal Cords
The air stream released by the lungs goes through the windpipe and comes to the larynx, which contains the vocal cords
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
Now make sure that you can speak on these items:
1.The direction of theair stream released from the lungs.
2. Three different st
Chapter II. ARTICULATION AND BREATHING PRACTICE
In order to acquire correct pronunciation, to manipulate the organs of speech one is to be taught breathing technique. The first and the most important thing in any system of voice exercises is th
EXERCISES ON DEVELOPING DEEP BREATHING
1. [This exercise should be taken every morning and evening before an open window.] Stand straight with your hands on hips and shoulders back and down. Close the mouth. Now draw a slow
I. Exercises for the Opening Of the Mouth
1.(a) Keep the mouth closed with the lips pressed together (Fig. 2).
(b) Drop the lower jaw as low as possible. The mouth should be wide open (Fig. 3).
(c
Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
3. (a) Open the mouth as wide as possible.
(b) Close the mouth gradually in three equal times.
(c) Practise the exercise counting "four" (see Figs. 3, 5, 4, 2).
Fig 6. Fig. 7
3. (a) Press the lips, then make them neutral. Now round them. (b) Now slightly protrude the lips as for the Russian sound [y]. (c ) Take the position of the lips pressed together.
Fig. 10. Fig. 11.
10. (a) Take a thin sheet of paper and put it before your lips (Fig. 12, a).
(b) Press the lips together.
(c) Push air through the mouth as strongly as possible, pronouncing the
Exercises for the Tongue
1.(a) Open the mouth so that the separation of the jaws could be considerable and you could see the tongue.
(b) Put the tip of the tongue against the lower teeth (Fig. 13,
Fig. 14. Fig. 15.
5. (a) The mouth is wide open.
(b) Put the blade of the tongue on the teeth ridge.
(c) Push the air through the mouth very quickly so that the strong friction is heard.
(
IV. Exercises for the Soft Palate
1.(a) Take a mirror, turn your back to the light, open the mouth
wide, keep the tongue as low as possible and say "Ah", as if the doctor wanted to examine your t
Chapter I. SOUNDS AND PHONEMES
Speech sounds are grouped into language units called phonemes. A phoneme may be thought of as the smallest contras-tive language unit which exists in the speech of all people belonging to the sam
THE DEGREE OF NOISE
According to the degree of noise English and Russian consonants are divided into two big classes:
Class A. Noise consonants.
Class B. Sonorants.
A. In the production of
Main Principles of Classification of Consonants
According to the Degree of Noise
Class A. Noise Consonants
Class B. Sonorants
Vary:
1 .• In the manner
Classification of English Noise Consonants According to the Degree of Noise
Class A. Noise consonants
b, d.g.v, 0.z, 3,03
p, t. k, Г. 0. s.f.!f.h
According to th
THE MANNER OF ARTICULATION
The manner of articulation of consonants is determined by the type of obstruction. The obstructions may be complete, incomplete and momentary. When the obstruction is complete the organs of speech
Classification of the English Noise Consonants and Sonorants According to the Manner of Articulation
Noise Consonants
Sonorants
Occlusive
stops
(plosives)
Constrictive fricatives
Occlusive-constric
THE PLACE OF ARTICULATION
The place of articulation is determined by the active organ of speech against the point of articulation. There may be one place of articulation or focus, or two places of articulation or foci when
The Classification of English an Russian Foreiingual Consonants According to the Position of the Tip of the Tongue
Apical
Dorsal
Cacuminal
English
Russian
English
Russian
English
Articulation
Labial
Lingual
Glottal
Bilabial
English Stops
^~"-~~-^_^ According to the place —^_^ of articulation According ^~^~-^___^ to the force of articulation-^-^^^
Bilabial
Fore
Fig. 19.
Definition,[t, d] are occlusive, plosive, forelingual, apical, alveolar; [tj is strong and voiceless, [dj is weak and voiced, in final position it is partly devoiced.
Fig. 21
voice
Definition,[k, g) are occlusive, plosive, backlingual, velar; [k] is strong and voiceless, [g] is weak and voiced, in final position it is partly devoiced.
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. Why are the occlusive plosive consonants called 'stops'?
2. Define the stops according to the place of articulation.
3. How are stops divided according to the work of the vocal
Kg. 22. Fig. 23.
Definition,[f, vj are constrictive fricative, labio-dental; [f] is strong and voiceless, [v] is weak and voiced, in the final position it is partly devoiced.
Artic
Fig. 24. Fig. 25.
Articulation.1. The tip of the tongue is either close to the edge of the upper teeth or slightly projected between the teeth.
2. For [9] the vocal cords do not vibrat
Fig. 28.
Definition, [f,3] are constrictive fricative, forelingual, apical, palate-alveolar, bicentral; [Г] is strong and voiceless, [3] is weak <md voiced, in final positio
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What consonant sounds are called 'fricatives'?
2. What fricatives are bicentral?
3. How are fricatives classified according to the place of articula-
tion?
4.
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What consonants are called 'affricates' and why?
2. What is the main difference between occlusive and occlusive-constrictive consonants in the manner of releasing the obstruction?
English Sonorants
^ч. Place of ^•n. articulation
Manner of ^ч. articulation ^v.
Labial
Forelin-gual apical alveolar
Forelin-gual apical post
OCCLUSIVE NASAL SONORANTS
|m] occurs in all word positions, spelt "m, mm, mb, mn", eg mean, summer, seam, comb, autumn
Definition,
Definition.(1] is constrictive, lateral, forelingual, apical, alveo-l.ii.
Articulation. 1. The tip of the tongue is in firm contact with llie alveolar ridge.
If the word is formed of a verb, no [gj is pronounced, eg sing — «i/ii/w. han
Fig. 36. Fig. 37.
2. The soft palate is raised and the air goes freely to the mouth.
3. The sides of the tongue are lowered and the air can pass between them and the palate.
4. The vocal cords are
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What is the main feature of sonorous consonants? Enumerate the English sonorants.
2. What advice regarding the position of the soft palate would you give to a fellow-student who
Chapter III. MODIFICATION OF CONSONANTS IN CONNECTED SPEECH
The complete articulation of a speech sound — a vowel or a consonant — when said by itself in isolation consists of three stages:
1. The on-glide stage during which the articulating
CONSONANT INFLUENCES CONSONANT
In Modern English it is mainly consonants that are assimilated. When the two adjacent sounds are consonants there occur most striking assimilative changes. Since the articulation of any speech sou
FUNDAMENTAL CONSONANT ALLOPHONES
Since all the allophones of the same phoneme differ according to the phonetic context in which they occur, it is necessary to give examples of those allophones which exhibit striking changes of ph
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What is assimilation?
2. What features of the articulation of a consonant may be affected by assimilation?
3. Give three examples illustrating different degrees of assimila-
Fig. 45.
Definition,[d] is back, open (broad variant), rounded, short.
Articulation.This vowel is articulated with the mouth wide open and slight open lip-rounding
Fig. 46.
Definition,[э:] is back, open (narrow variant), rounded, long.
Articulation.The tongue is in the back part of the mouth. The back of the tongue is ra
Fig. 47.
Definition,[u] is back-advanced, close (broad variant), rounded, short.
Articulation.The whole body of the tongue is in the back part of the mouth. -The p
Fig. 49.
Definition,[з:] is central, mid (narrow variant), unrounded, long.
Articulation.The tongue is almost flat. The central part of the tongue is slightly high
Fig. 52.
Definition, [u:]is back, close (narrow variant), rounded, long. Articulation.The tongue is in ,the back part of the mouth. The back of the tongue is rather high in
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. Suppose that a fellow-student pronounces the Russian {и] in stead of the English (ij. Keeping in mind what you know about the articulation of the English vowel tell him what to do t
Ai, ay ei, ey
[a]
■ take, paper, made ea
- main, say eigh
■ vein, grey, they
great, break eight, neighbour
Fig. 53.
Definition. The nucleus of the diphthong is front, mid (narrow variant), unrounded.
Articulation. The nucleus is the vowel [ej (see p. 91). For the qiide the tongue moves upward in the di
Fig. 56.
The sound [зо] occurs in all positions of the word, eg орел, road, no.
Allophones.The nucleus of the diphthong [зо] is longer in the open syllable, it is shorter in
Fig. 57.
Definition.The nucleus of the diphthong is central, open (broad variant), unrounded.
Articulation.The starting point of the diphthong is between the back
Fig. 58.
Definition.The nucleus of the diphthong is the front-retracted, close (broad variant), unrounded vowel [i] (not [t]).
Articulation. The nucleus is the vowel [ij
Fig. 60.
Definition.The nucleus of the diphthong is back-advanced, close (broad variant), slightly rounded.
Articulation.The nucleus of the diphthong
English and Russian Vowels
^x The Part x. of the x. Tongue n^ Raised
The Height . of the Tongue X.
Front
Front-retracted
Central
Back-adva
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. How would your fellow-student probably pronounce the English diphthong [eij?
2. Suppose that a fellow-student pronounces the Russian sound combination [ajj instead of the English
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. Suppose your fellow-student pronounces the Russian [j] and [y] instead of the correct second elements in the English vowel sequences [aia, аиэ). What would you advise him to do in order to perf
Chapter V. MODIFICATION OF VOWELS IN CONNECTED SPEECH
' ->
REDUCTION
In English as well as in Russian vowels in unstressed syllables! are usually reduced. The laws of reduction, in these languages are not the
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What phenomenon is called 'reduction'?
2. Name the sounds which are commonly found in the unstressed syllables.
3. In what kind of words do non-reduced vowels occur in unstre
Strong and Weak Forma
Words
Strong Forms
Weak Forms (quantitative reduction, qualitative reduction, elision of sounds)
Examples
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. Mark sentence-stresses and underline all the content words in the sentence: 'I sent them a photo of the children.' What parts of speech are content words?
2. Mark sentence-stresses and
Chapter I. SYLLABLE FORMATION
A syllable is a speech unit consisting of a sound or a sound sequence one of which is heard to be more prominent than the others. The most prominent sound being the peak or the nucleus of a syllabl
Chapter II. SYLLABLE DIVISION
Syllable formation and syllable division rules appear to be a matter of great practical value to the language learner. They are especially important when it is necessary to know the numbeT of sylla
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What is a syllable?
2. What sounds can form the 'peak' of a syllable?
3. What sonorous sounds are syllabic?
4. What are the two possible ways to pronounce a word with
Chapter I. MANIFESTATION OF WORD STRESS AND ITS LINGUISTIC FUNCTION
i ■ -■ ■ ........................... i
One or more syllables of a polysyllabic word have greater promin
THE DEGREES OF WORD STRESS
In English there are three degrees of word stress: stressed syllables (primary stress), half-stressed syllables (secondary stress) and weak or unstressed syllables. A la
THE POSITION OF WORD STRESS
Word stress in English as well as in Russian is free, in the sense that the primary stress is not tied to any particular syllable m all the words. But it always falls on a particular syllable of an
WORDS WITH PRIMARY AND SECONDARY STRESS
The secondary stress is manifested in polysyllabic words with the primary stress on the third or on the fourth syllable from the beginning, eg ,popu'larity, responsibility.
WORDS WITH TWO PRIMARY STRESSES
The following groups of words have two primary stresses:
1. Polysyllables with separable prefixes having a distinct ueaning of their own.
Negative prefixes un-, dis-, non-, in- (a
STRESS IN COMPOUND WORDS
Words composed of separable root morphemes are called compounds.
The spelling of compound words differs. They may be spelled as one word, with a hyphen or as two separate words. Among comp
WORD STRESS AND RHYTHM
All the above-mentioned words with two equally strong stresses are subjected to the influence of English rhythm in connected speech.
Thus in a double-stressed word the first element is we
THE DISTINCTIVE FUNCTION OF WORD STRESS
A relatively small number of words of the same morphological structure differ in the position of word stress. In this case the opposition of accentual structures differentiates the meaning. T
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What factors create the effect of stress in the English words torment (n) ['to:ment] — torment (v) fto:'ment], concert (n) ['konsatl — concert fv) [kan's3:t] and in Russian
Intonation
Chapter I. MANIFESTATION OF INTONATION AND ITSLINGUISTIC FUNCTION
ii
The information conveyed by a sentence is expressed not only by proper words and gramm
Chapter II. BASIC INTONATION PATTERNS
THE ANATOMY OF INTONATION PATTERNS
It is generally acknowledged that voice pitch or speech melody and sentence stress or accent are the two main components of intonation. Though these ele
THE HEAD
The head in English is an extremely flexible segment. It stretches from the first stressed syllable up to (but not including) the nuclear tone.
Head patterns are classified into three majo
The Low Pre-Head The Low Pre-Nucleus
The Low Pre-Head may occur before any head and the Low Pre-Nucleus is usually heard before all the nuclear tones.
(b) If unstressed or partially stressed syllables are pronounced highe
Ie High Pre-Head The High Pre-Nucleus
The High Pre-Head usually occurs before descending and <iigh or medium level heads. The High Pre-Nucleus can be leard before almost any nuclear tone.
So the рге-heads may
Table of Notation in the Text
Pre-Heads
Heads
Nuclear and
Terminal
Tones
Tails
|~1 — the High
Pre-Head
I,J — partially
stre
EMPHASIS
Intonation groups and sentences can be made to sound more lively, more emotional and more emphatic by means of pitch, i.e. various sections of pitch-and-stress patterns, cf:
I ^didn't with
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. By means of what sections of pitch-and-stress patterns can intonation groups and sentences be made to sound more emphatic?
2. How can the High Pre-Head intensify the meaning of
CLASSIFICATION OF INTONATION PATTERNS
Different combinations of pitch sections (pre-heads, heads and nuclei) may result in more than one hundred pitch-and-stress patterns. But it is not necessary to deal with all of them because some p
INTONATION PATTERNS AND MEANING
This section provides the description of meanings and attitudes conveyed by the patterns of the eight pitch-and-stress groups with no reference to various sentence types. It should be pointed out
Pitch-And-SLress Groupe Usage
Low Fall
High Fall
Rise-Fall
Low Rise
High Rise
Fall-Rise
Rise-Fall
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. How are the patterns of Group I divided according to their usage?
2. Why can Patterns One, Two, Three be referred to the same group according to the expressed attitude?
3. What
Y1-- -Л1.--Л.1---У
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. Why do all the patterns with the Rise-Fall have occasional emphatic usage?
2. How do they all sound? Give your own examples.
3. Suppose you want to sound impressed, awed, smug
Level Head Level Head
eg Statements: I ,know it. (No Head)
I'll re^pair it as 'soon as I /Can.
(F. H.) It's "»all ,right. (H. L. H.) It's _, no trouble at ,all. (M. L. H.)
General questio
Scandent Head
eg Statements:
General questions:
Special questions:
Imperatives (requests):
Exclamations:
There's vno 'need t
Continued
Common Emphatic Usage
Pattern Four (L L. H.)
guarded, reserving some judgement, critical, disapproving, wondering, resentful; in
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. How are the patterns of Group IV divided according to their usage?
2. Give examples with every sentence type pronounced with Patterns One, Two, Three. Say what attitudes are conveyed in
Quot;Л1------- Л
eg Statements:
High Level Head Medium Level Head
I ""* don't revmember I'm a,fraid.
(H. L. H.) I _»d
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What attitudes are conveyed by the speaker in phrases pronounced with Patterns One and Two?
2. If a speaker wants to contradict somebody, sound grumbling and reproachful, what pattern
Chapter 111. INTONATION PATTERNS AND SENTENCE TYPES
In this chapter we shall consider the effect of theintonation patterns in association with each of the five main sentence types: statements, special questions (very often called 'w
I. STATEMENTS
1. Statements are most widely used with the Low (Medium) Fall preceded by the Falling Head or the High (Medium) Level Head. In all these cases they are final, complete and definite, eg:
It
III. GENERAL QUESTIONS
1. General questions are most common with the low risincj tone preceded by the Falling Head or the High (Medium) Level Head. With these patterns they sound genuinely interested, eg:
B. Requests
1.Requests with the Low Rise preceded by the Falling or the High (Medium) Level Heads sound soothing, encouraging, per haps calmly patronising, eg:
-* Don't ,move
The falling-rising tone may be also treated as a more expressive variant I l he rising tone.
The terminal tone of the final intonation group is generally determined by the communicative sentence type and the attitudes conveyed by the speaker. Statements commonly sound ■ itti the Low
Adverbial Phrases
Adverbial phrases at the beginning of a simple sentence normally form a separate intonation group pronounced with the Low Rise or the Mid Level, eg:
> Yesterday | I "* stayed ^ in
Enumeration
Enumeration in simple sentences is represented by a number of homogeneous parts. Each of them is pronounced as a separate intonation group.
The terminal tone of the final intonation group
Disjunctive Questions
Disjunctive questions being simple sentences consist of at least two sense-groups represented by a statement (affirmative or negative) and a tag question (negative or affirmative), corresponding t
Direct Address
Direct address can stand in sentence initial, medial and final positions. In sentence initial position it commonly forms an intonation group pronounced with the Low Fall in formal, serious speech
Parentheses
Parentheses, consisting of a word, word combination or a clause show the speaker's attitude towards the idea expressed in the sentence, connect the sentence with another one or summarize what is s
Parentheses
Parentheses, consisting of a word, word combination or a clause show the speaker's attitude towards the idea expressed in the sentence, connect the sentence with another one or summarize what is s
COMPOUND SENTENCES
The sequence of tones in compound sentences consisting of two or more coordinated clauses depends on the degree of their semantic unity. If the non-final intonation group (a clause) is
COMPLEX SENTENCES
Complex sentences contain the principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. The latter may follow the principal clause, precede it or break the main clause into two parts.
If the s
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What determines the choice of the final terminal tone?
2. Explain the use of the low rising tone in the sentence:
'/Sometimes | I Vcome 'home xearly.'
What
QUESTIONS AND T.SKS
1. In what way are tie words in a sentence made prominent?
2. How is the promnence of words realized?
3. What is the mail function of sentence-stress?
4. Which is the mot
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What is speech rhythm?
2. What are the characteristic features of English rhythm?
3. How does the English rhythm differ from Russian?
4. What is a rhythmic group?
Chapter I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Phonostylistics came into existence as an attempt to start bridging the gap between linguistic and extra-linguistic factors in analysing stylistic differentiation of oral texts.
Phonostyli
Words that Imitate Sounds Produced by Animals
RUSSIAN
ENGUSH
SPANISH
DANISH
JAPANESE
гав-гав
bow-wow
guau-guag
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. Speak on linguistic and extra-linguistic factors. What is the difference between them?
2. How did phonostylistics come into existence?
3. What does the term "phonostylisti
Chapter II. STYLISTICUSE OF INTONATION
Intonation plays a central role in stylistic differentiation of oral texts. Stylistically explicable deviations from intonational norms reveal conventional patterns differing from language to langu
Intonational Styles and Speech Typoliogy Correlation
Speech typology-
Intona- tional styles
Varieties of language
Forms of communication
Degrete of speeich preparedness
Pattern Two: (Low Pre-Head +) FalUng Head + High FaU (+ ТаШ
Statement
Attitude:final, categoric, complete, definite, involved, eg: Stimulus: It's his turn now. Response: I Iquite 'thought it was VMINE.
Pattern Six: (Low Pre-Head +) Scandent Head + Low Rise (+Tail) on
Pattern Seven: High Pre-Nucleus + Low Rise (+ Tail)
The attitudesare basically the same as those conveyed by Patterns 1—3, but the meaning is intensified.
Pattern Three: (Low Pre-Head +) Rising Head + High (Medium) Rise (+ Tail).
Special Question
Attitude:unpleasantly surprised, puzzled, sometimes disapproving, eg:
Stimulus: They behaved like a couple of stuffed dummies.
Pattern Four: (Low Pre-Head +) Climbing Head + High (Medium) Rise (+ Tail).
The attitudesare basically the same as those conveyed by Pattern Three but the meaning is intensified.
Special Question
Stimulus: Why didn't you write to t
Pattern Two: (Low Pre-Head +) Falling Head + Fall-Rise (+ Tail).
Statement
Attitude:grudgingly admitting, reluctantly or defensively dissenting, concerned, reproachful, hurt/reserved, tentatively sug? gesting, eg:
Stimulus:
Pattern One: (Low Pre-Nucleus +) Mid-Level (+ Tail) or
Pattern Two: (Low Pre-Head +) High (Medium) Level Head + Mid-Level (+Tail)
Attitude:conveying the impression of non-finality, expectancy, hesitation; some
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
I
1. What are the characteristic features of informational (formal) ( style? Analyse and read extracts exemplifying this style. Take ', into
Assimilation
1. This exercise illustrates some special pronunciation which the stops have When immediately followed by [n] or [m]. There is no sound at all between the stop and [n] or [mj. Learners must endeavo
Diphthongoids
1.Listen how the speaker on the tape reads the following words.
easy, eager, sea, tea, seem, please, meat, weak
2. Read the words yourself. Pay attention to the v
Diphthongs
(ei]
1.Listen how the speaker on the tape pronounces the following words:
aim, aid, day, bay, name, same, late, fate
2. Read the wor
MODIFICATION OF VOWELS IN CONNECTED SPEECH
Reduction
1. Transcribe the following words, paying particular attention to the location of the stresses and to the vowels in the unstressed syllables. Underline them.
hopeless, e
INFORMATIONAL (FORMAL) STYLE
1. This exercise is meant to develop your ability to hear and reproduce the kind of intonation used in informational style (news coverage).
(a) Listen to the following broadcast ne
SCIENTIFIC (ACADEMIC) STYLE
1. This exercise is meant to develop your ability to hear and reproduce the kind of intonation used in a lecture on a scientific subject.
(a) Listen to the following lecture carefully, se
DECLAMATORY STYLE
1. This exercise is meant to develop your ability to hear and reproduce the kind of intonation used'in reading aloud a piece of descriptive prose.
(a) Listen to the following text carefull
Those Evening Bells
Those evening bells! Those evening bells! How many a tale their music tells, Of love, and home, and that sweet time, When last I heard their soothing chime! Those joyous hours are passed away! And
Bonnie Bell
The smiling spring comes in rejoicing.
And surly winter grimly flies:
Now crystal clear are the falling waters.
And bonnie blue are the sunny skies;
Fresh o'er t
PUBLICISTIC STYLE
1. This exercise is intended to develop your ability to hear and reproduce the kind of intonation used in publicistic style (oratory and speeches).
(a) Listen to the following text carefu
FAMILIAR (CONVERSATIONAL) STYLE
All the exercises given here for Groups I—VIII are meant to develop your ability to reproduce intonation patterns in proper speech situations. Work at the conversational contexts in the way suggest
In this conversation in a cafe the woman is very cold and re served. Listen carefully and concentrate on what she says
Make up similar conversational situations and act them with your fellow-student.
— Do you mind if I sit here?
— No.
— Nice day today, isn't it?
— Yes.
Pattern Three. (Low Pre-Head +) High (Medium) Head + High
Fall (+Tail)
Model: What was the ~* First * rate.
show like?
Stimulus Response
When's the concert? Next Sunday.
It's going to be
Pattern Five. (Low Pre-Head +) Stepping Head + High Fall
(+Tail)
Pattern Six. (Low Pre-Head +) Sliding Head (High Falls) + High
Fall (+Tail)
Model: I can't find my vAre you ^sure you
purse anywhere. ^didn'tvleave it at
the office?
iAi
Pattern Five. (Low Pre-Head +) Stepping Head + High Fall
(♦Tail)
Stimulus Response
Do you think I should Mightn't it be better to wait?
ring him?
I hate the thought of Ought we to delay it
Pattern Four. (Low Pre-Head +) Stepping Head + Rise-Fall
(♦Tail)
Model: Jane was quite You can vhardly 'blame the
at a loss. л girl.
Stimulus Response
Are you fond of
Pattern Four. (Low Pre-Head +) Stepping Head + Rise Fall
(+Tail)
Stimulus Response
Why are you so angry with I don't think you're aware of
her? what she's done.
She refused to help us again. Wha
Pattern Five. (Low Pre-Head +) Stepping Head + Low Rise
(+Tail)
Model: I can't take all Well then Чаке as 'many
of them. as you, can.
Stimulus Response
Have you finished with I'll do it
Pattern Five. (Low Pre-Head +) Stepping Head + Low Rise
(+Tail)
Stimulus Response
I feel very tired these days. You mustn't work too hard at
night. I'll be seeing you on Tuesday. I shan't be coming here
Pattern Two. (Low Рте-Head +) Falling Head + Fall-Rise
(+Tail)
Model: One more game? You'llv miss your v train.
Stimulus Response
It shouldn't take long. It'll take at least a mon
Pattern Two. (Low Pre-Head+) Falling Head + Fall-Rise
(+ Tail)
Stimulus Response
You liked the film, didn't It's more interesting than I ex-
you? pected.
I shan't go with you. What made you c
Pattern Two. (Low Pre-Head +) High (Medium) Head + Mid
Level (+Tail)
Model: What shall we do?
Ring her > up f an
Adverbials
1.Listen how the speaker on the tape reads the following sen tences with adverbial phrases. Concentrate on sequence of tones. Imitate the reading. Practise reading them. B
Commands
1. Listen how the speaker on the tape reads the following com mands. Concentrate on their intonation. Imitate the reading.
(a) Fetch a chair, will you? Write it down, will you?
Direct Address
Listen how the speaker on the tape reads the following sentences with direct address at the beginning of the sentence. Imitate the reading.
Porter, will you see to my luggage, please? Pat
Direct Address
Listen how the speaker on the tape reads the following sentences with direct address at the beginning of the sentence. Imitate the reading.
Porter, will you see to my luggage, please? Pat
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