QUESTIONS AND TASKS - раздел Иностранные языки, ПРАКТИЧЕСКАЯ ФОНЕТИКА АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА 1. What Is Assimilation?
2. What Features Of The Articulation Of A C...
1. What is assimilation?
2. What features of the articulation of a consonant may be affected by assimilation?
3. Give three examples illustrating different degrees of assimila-
tion.
4. What is the difference between progressive and regressive assimilations ?
5. What kind of assimilation affects the alveolar articulation of
the [t, d, n] and [1] when they are followed by (0] or [d]?
6. What allophone of the phoneme (I) is used within the word health! How does this allophone differ from the principal one?
7. Ask your fellow-student to transcribe the words white, thorn,
although, breadth, to underline the consonants affected by assimilation and to define its type.
8. What similar assimilative changes do the allophones of the phonemes [t, d, n, 1, s, z] undergo when they are used before [9] or [6]?
9. How would you help your fellow-student to pronounce (nj and [1] preceded by [9] or [d] correctly?
10. What consonant in the sentence "Call the boy" is affected by
regressive assimilation?
11. Read and transcribe the words train, trifle. Say what consonant is assimilated in them and what degree of assimilation it is.
12. Transcribe and pronounce the words three, thread, thrill, throat, throw. Say what allophones of the phoneme [r] are used in them.
13. What allophone of the phoneme [rj is used within the word
through1? Explain the difference between this allophone and the principal one.
14. What allophone of the phoneme [d] is used within the words
drop, drug? Explain the difference between this allophone and the principal one. Say what degree of assimilation it is.
15. What articulatory features of the sonorant [1) within the word
flower are affected by assimilation?
16. Transcribe and pronounce the words train, quarter, twilight
and swallow and say what type of assimilation takes place in
them.
17. Ask a fellow-student to read the following sets of words. Con-
centrating on the difference between the sonorant [wj in word initial position and the [w] preceded by the plosives (s, tj or [kj. Ask him what type of assimilation it is. (1) win — twin , (2) wept — swept, (3) white — quite.
18. Which consonant within the word clock is affected by assimi1-
lation? What degree of assimilation is it?
19. What kind of assimilation do you come across in the cluster
{twj in the word twilight? In what other clusters do we come across the same type of assimilation?
20. Ask a fellow-student to tell you what articulatory features of
the sonorant [wj are affected by assimilation within the words twin, swing, queen. What type of assimilation is it?
21. Can you formulate the principles which determine the pronunciation of the ending -ed, added to regular English verbs to form the Past Indefinite tense? Give examples illustrating all the possible cases.
22. Ask a fellow-student to formulate the principles which deter-
mine the pronunciation of the ending -s, -z, added to the end of the word to make a noun plural or possessive, or to put a verb in the third person singular form of the present tense. This ending is spelled in several different ways: -s, -es, -'s or -s'.
23. Tell your fellow-student to pronounce each of these words
and write the phonetic symbol which represents the sounds
he gave to the ending. Then ask him to explain why the
ending is pronounced as it is:
asked, breaks, caps, believed, appears, animals, lighted, fixed, brooches.
24. What advice regarding voicing and force of articulation
would you give a fellow-student who makes the following
errors in the pronunciation of:
1. had as [haetj instead of [hzed]
2. than as [9aen] instead of [daen]
3. dog as [dok] instead of (dog]
4. languages as ['lzengwrtfis] instead of ['laengwid^iz]
5. obstinate as f'Dpstinit] instead of ['Dostum]
25. Suppose your fellow-student pronounces the word medicine
as ['metsin] and blackboard as ['bl£egbo:d]. Keeping in mind
what you know about voicing and devoicing in English and
Russian tell him what he must do to eliminate the error.
26. Tell your fellow-student to read the words behind, perhaps. Ask him what allophone of |h] is used in them. What is this position of [hj called?
27. Your fellow-student probably makes an error in pronouncing
[b] within the following words: public, better, job. Keeping in mind what you know about voicing in English tell him how to eliminate the error. -
28. Transcribe and read the following sets of words:
(1) day, today, loved; (2) glue, degree, bag. Pay special attention to the plosives [d] and [g] in initial, medial and final positions. Say what you know about voicing.
29. Ask your fellow-student to pronounce the English equiva
lents of the following Russian words and phrases. Define all
subsidiary allophones of consonant phonemes in them. Ask
him to explain how these allophones differ from the princi
pal ones.
1) прочтите это; напишите это; десятое упражнение;
2) весна, сила, небо, снег, пьеса, мелодия;
3) стараться, плавать.
30. Ask a fellow-student to analyze the words handkerchief and gooseberry from the point of view of assimilations in them and state: (1) the degree of assimilation; (2) the direction of assimilation.
31. How does the nasal sonorant [n] influence the plosive [t] in the word kitten ?
32. What allophones of English stops are used before the nasal sonorants?
33. In what clusters do the plosionless allophones of the stops occur?
34. Say what allophones of the English stops are used before another stop or an affricate? Give examples to illustrate the rule.
35. Listen to your fellow-student reading the following sets of words. Suppose he makes errors in reading them. Tell him what his errors in the pronunciation of the [tl] and (dlj clusters are, and what he must do to correct the error.
kettle, battle, dental, muddle, hardly.
36. What examples can you give to illustrate the conditions due
to which a phoneme has different subsidiary allophones?
37. Why is it important to know and be able to pronounce the
subsidiary allophones of the phonemes?
Chapter IV. VOWELS
PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION
Vowels are normally made with the air stream that meets no closure or narrowing in the mouth, pharyngal and nasal cavities. That is why in the production of vowel sounds there is no noise component characteristic of consonantal sounds.
On the articulatory level the description of vowels notes changes:
1. in the stability of articulation,
2. in the tongue position,
3. in the lip position,
4. in the character of the vowel end.
Besides that vowels differ in respect of their length.
1. Stability of Articulation. All English vowels are divided
into three groups: pure vowels or monophthongs, diphthongs
■ fid diphthongoids.
Monophthongs are vowels the articulation of which is almost unchanging. The quality of such vowels is relatively pure. Most Kussian vowels are monophthongs. The English monophthongs .ire: (i, e, ж, a, d, э:, и, л, з:, э].
In the pronunciation of diphthongs the organs of speech glide from one vowel position to another within one syllable. The starting point, the nucleus, is strong and distinct. The 4lide which shows the direction of the quality change is very
<ik. In fact diphthongs consist of two clearly perceptible vowel
ments. There are no diphthongs in Russian. The English diphthongs are: [ei, ai, di, au, зи, ia, еэ, иэ].
In the pronunciation of diphthongoids the articula-intn is slightly changing but the difference between the starting 11'>int and the end is not so distinct as it is in the case of diphthongs. There are two diphthongoids in English: [i:, u:]. The ini-ii.il "o" may serve as an example of a Russian diphthongoid, eg очень.
2. Tongue Positions. The changes in the position of the
tnngue determine largerly the shape of the mouth and pharyngal
ities. The tongue may move forward and backward, up and • •■■.vn, thus changing the quality of vowel sounds.
и-
(1) When the tongue moves forward and backward various
parts of it may be raised in the direction of the palate.
When the tongue is in the front part of the mouth and the front part of it is raised to the hard palate a front vowel is pronounced. This is the position for the English vowels [i:, e, г] and the Russian vowels |и] and [э].
When the tongue is in the front part of the mouth but slightly retracted, and the part of the tongue nearer to centre than to front is raised, a front-retracted vowel is pronounced. Such is the position for the English vowel («J. There are no front-retracted vowels in Russian.
When the front of the tongue is raised towards the back part of the hard palate the vowel is called central. This is the position for the English vowels [а], (з:], (э] and the Russian vowels (a) and [ы].
When the tongue is in the back part of the mouth and the back of it is raised towards the soft palate a back vowel is pronounced. This is the position for the English vowels [cl, 0,3:, u:j and the Russian vowels [о, у].
When the tongue is in the back part of the mouth but is slightly advanced and the central part of it is raised towards the front part of the soft palate a back-advanced vowel is pronounced. This is the position for the English vowel [u].
(2) Moving up and down in the mouth various parts of the
tongue may be raised to different height towards the roof of the
mouth.
When the front or the back of the tongue is raised high to
wards the palate the vowel is called close. This is the way the
English vowels [u, i, u, m] and the Russian vowels [и, ы, у] araj
pronounced. [
When the front or the back of the tongue is as low as possible in the mouth open vowels are pronounced. This is the way to pronounce the English vowels [ae, a, o, a] and the Russian vowel [a].
When the highest part of the tongue occupies the position intermediate between the close and the open one m i d vowel» are pronounced. This is the position for the English vowels [e, a, з:, э) and the Russian vowels [э, о].
To mark all significant changes in vowel quality it is not enough to single out these three groups of vowels. For instance, both English vowels [i;] and [i] belong to the group of close vowels, but when the vowel [i] is articulated the front of the tongue is not so high in the mouth as it is in the case of the vowel [i:]. Similar examples may be found in the groups of mid and open vowels. To make the classification more precise it is necessary to distinguish broad and narrow variants of close, mid •md open vowels. The classification of English and Russian vowels looks like this:
| Close vowels
| narrow variant
| the English [t, it] the Russian [и, ы, у J
|
|
| broad variant
| the English [i, u]
|
| Mid vowels
| narrow variant
| the English [e, з:, з] the Russian [э]
|
|
| broad variant
| the English [л, э, е] the Russian [o]
|
| ()pen vowels
| narrow variant
| the English [з:, э]
|
|
| broad variant
| the English [ж, ш, о, а) the Russian [a]
|
3. Lip Position.The shape cff the mouth cavity is also largely
i nendent on the position of the lips. When the lips are neutral
pread the vowels are termed unrounded. Such is the position of the lips for the English vowels [i:, i, e, ae, а, л, з:, э]
the Russian vowels [и, э, ы, а].
When the lips are drawn together so that the opening between them is more or less round the vowel is called round-* il This is the position for the English vowels [d, э:, и, u:] and Ihr Russian vowels [o, yj. When the Russian rounded vowels are piunounced the lips are somewhat protruded.
4. Character of Vowel End.The quality of all English
lix'iiophthongs in the stressed position is strongly affected by
Ни- following consonant of the same syllable. If a stressed vowel
is followed by a strong voiceless consonant it is cut off by it. In this case the end of the vowel is strong and the vowel is called checked. Such vowels are heard in stressed closed syllables ending in a strong voiceless consonant, eg better, cart.
If a vowel is followed by a weak voiced consonant or by no consonant at all the end of it is very weak. In this case the vowel is called free. Such vowels are heard in closed syllables ending in a voiced consonant or in an open syllable, eg before, money, begger, bead. All Russian vowels tend to be free.
Vowel Length. Vowels are capable of being continued during a longer or a shorter period. All English vowels (with the exception of diphthongs) are generally divided into long and short.
Long vowels are: [i:, a, o:, u:, 3:j.
Short vowels are: (i, e, d, и, л, э].
The vowel (ae] is not included in the category of short vowels because of specific length associated with it (see p. 92).
But for the purpose of practical speech training it is not enough to distinguish two degrees of length.
In the similarly accented position all English vowels are fully long when they are final, eg see, bar, sore, fur.
They are almost as long as that when a weak voiced conso nant follows them in the closed syllable, eg seed, arm, form, bird, big, bed, song.
They are considerably shorter before strong voiceless conso narits in closed syllables, eg seat, lark, look, first, bit, set.
Diphthongs vary in length in the same way as long vowels, с I play — played — plate, toy — toys — voice, fear — fears — fierce
Variations of length affect mainly the nucleus, not the glide Such variations might be represented in the following way:
play {ple:ij — plays (pleiz] — plate (pleit]
All English vowels are longer when they are strongly stressed, cf in'form — 'uniform.
All English vowels are longer in the nuclear syllable, cf
It is six o'clock now. They are only vsix.
It should be noted that in similar phonetic contexts traditionally long vowels are always longer than traditionally short vow els, cf see — sin, calm — come, cord — cod.
All Russian vowels are equally long in similar phonetic con» texts.
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. According to the stability of articulation there are three groups of vowels. Do you think it is enough to distinguish only two groups: monophthongs and diphthongs?
2. Phoneticians speak of front vowels and back vowels. What characteristic do all the front vowels have in common that is different from the back vowels?
3. What is the difference between front and front-retracted vow-
els?
4. What is the difference between back and back-advanced vowels?
5. What makes central and front vowels different?
6. What characteristic makes close vowels unlike mid and open
ones?
7. What would you tell your fellow-student to prove the necessity of distinguishing narrow and broad variants of close, mid and open vowels?
8. What is the difference between free and checked vowels?
9. How do different phonetic contexts modify vowel length in English?
10. Can the location of word stress and intonation influence vowel length?
11. Are there any historically long and short vowels in English?
MONOPHTHONGS
[i]
/ — bit, pill, kitchen
у — busy, syllable
'• — pretty, before, homeless
>■ — bodies, studies
" - luggage, graduate
Definition, [i] is front-retracted, close (Inodd variant), unrounded, short.
Articulation. The tongue is in the front |).m of the mouth but slightly retracted. The
part of the tongue nearer to centre than to front is raised to a half-close position. The side rims of the tongue make a light contact with the upper teeth. The tongue is lax. The lips are loosely spread. The mouth is slightly in.
This vowel may occur in all positions in the word, eg interval, minute, city, bit, bid, singing.
Allophones.The vowel [ж] is longer in the open syllable when it is free. It is shorter in the closed syllable with a weak voiced consonant at the end. It is checked and much shorter in the stressed closed syllable ending in a strong voiceless consonant, cf river — pig — sit.
In unstressed syllables it is increasingly common to use [э] instead of [ij in such endings as -ity, -itivewhen another syllable with the vowel [i] follows, eg reality, positive.
In certain words a variation -between [i] and [э] is heard, eg possible, begin.
The vowel [1] is most likely replaced by [э] when there is no potential opposition. In such pairs as accept — except, affect — effect, dancers — dances there is a tendency to retain the vowel [ij.
Recommendations.Start with Articulation Exercises II, 4; 111, 11. Take a mirror and check the position of the lips. The mouth should be only slightly open. The lips are spread but they should not cover the teeth. Keep the tip of the tongue against the lower teeth. To make the stressed vowel [i] checked it is advisable to cut it off by the following strong voiceless consonant.
Comparison with the Russian Vowels (и] and [ы].The Russian vowel [и] is closer, more advanced and generally longer than the English [i]. The Russian vowel [ы) is a closer and a more centralized type than the English vowel [ij, cf sit — cum — сыт.
Possible Mistakes. 1.Russian students of English can easily replace the English vowel [i] by the Russian [и]. In this case the tip of the tongue should be slightly retracted from the lower teeth. The front of the tongue should be lowered and the vowel must not be too long.
2. If this vowel is replaced by the Russian [ы] the tongue
must be slightly advanced. Move the tip of the tongue closer to
the lower teeth. The front, not the central part of the tongue,
should be raised, but not so high as for the Russian vowel [и].
In both cases the tongue and the lips should be relaxed.
3. Sometimes the vowel [i] is not checked and short enough
in closed stressed syllables ending in a voiceless consonant. This mistake is especially common in such syllables which would be open in Russian. For instance, the syllabic division of the word bitter in English is bit-ter, according to Russian pronunciation habits it would be bi-tter. To make the English Ji) checked and short enough it is necessary to observe correct syllable division and cut the vowel off by the following consonant.
[ej
e — red, get, spend ea — bread, leather о — many, any
Definition, [e] is
front, mid (narrow variant), unrounded, short.
Articulation. The
tongue is in the front
part of the mouth. The
Iront of the tongue is
uiised to the hard pal- Fig. 42.
<ite but not so high as
lor [ij. The side rims of the tongue make a light contact with the upper teeth. The tongue may be more tense than in the case of |i]. The lips are loosely spread. The mouth is slightly open but a bit more than for [i].
This vowel may occur in various positions with the exception <>t the open syllables, eg many, head, left.
Allophones. The vowel [e] is longer in the closed syllable with a weak voiced consonant at the end. It is checked and much shorter in the stressed closed syllable ending in a strong voiceless consonant, cf bed — bet.
Recommendations. Start with Articulation Exercises II, 4; 111, 11. Take a mirror and check the position of the lips. Ther should not cover the teeth. Do not open the mouth too wide. 7o make i he vowel front keep the tip of the tongue against the lower teeth. To make the vowel [e] checked cut it off by the following strong consonant.
Comparison with the Russian vowel [э]. The Russian
vowel [э] is a shade more open and retracted type than the English vowel [e].
Possible Mistakes.1. Russian students of English can easily replace the English vowel [e] by the Russian vowel [э]. In this case raise the front of the tongue higher and slightly advance it.
2. Sometimes the English [c] is not checked and short enough in stressed closed syllables ending in a strong voiceless consonant. This mistake is especially common in such syllables which would be open in Russian. For instance, the syllable division of the word better is bet-ter. According to Russian pronunciation habits it would be. be-tter. To make the English [e] checked and short enough it is necessary to observe correct syllabic division and cut the vowel off by the following consonant.
N "
a — land, bad, sat, hatter
Все темы данного раздела:
TO THE STUDENT
When a student can reproduce the natural flow of living speech he will certainly feel an artist's satisfaction. To achieve it three things are necessary: (1) to practise intelligently; (2) to unde
Chapter 1. THE ORGANS OF SPEECH AND THEIR WORK
In any language people speak (if they have no physical defects) using their organs of speech (Fig. 1).
••••-; Hard Palate
Fig. 1.
Larynx
Vocal Cords
The air stream released by the lungs goes through the windpipe and comes to the larynx, which contains the vocal cords
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
Now make sure that you can speak on these items:
1.The direction of theair stream released from the lungs.
2. Three different st
Chapter II. ARTICULATION AND BREATHING PRACTICE
In order to acquire correct pronunciation, to manipulate the organs of speech one is to be taught breathing technique. The first and the most important thing in any system of voice exercises is th
EXERCISES ON DEVELOPING DEEP BREATHING
1. [This exercise should be taken every morning and evening before an open window.] Stand straight with your hands on hips and shoulders back and down. Close the mouth. Now draw a slow
I. Exercises for the Opening Of the Mouth
1.(a) Keep the mouth closed with the lips pressed together (Fig. 2).
(b) Drop the lower jaw as low as possible. The mouth should be wide open (Fig. 3).
(c
Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
3. (a) Open the mouth as wide as possible.
(b) Close the mouth gradually in three equal times.
(c) Practise the exercise counting "four" (see Figs. 3, 5, 4, 2).
Fig 6. Fig. 7
3. (a) Press the lips, then make them neutral. Now round them. (b) Now slightly protrude the lips as for the Russian sound [y]. (c ) Take the position of the lips pressed together.
Fig. 10. Fig. 11.
10. (a) Take a thin sheet of paper and put it before your lips (Fig. 12, a).
(b) Press the lips together.
(c) Push air through the mouth as strongly as possible, pronouncing the
Exercises for the Tongue
1.(a) Open the mouth so that the separation of the jaws could be considerable and you could see the tongue.
(b) Put the tip of the tongue against the lower teeth (Fig. 13,
Fig. 14. Fig. 15.
5. (a) The mouth is wide open.
(b) Put the blade of the tongue on the teeth ridge.
(c) Push the air through the mouth very quickly so that the strong friction is heard.
(
IV. Exercises for the Soft Palate
1.(a) Take a mirror, turn your back to the light, open the mouth
wide, keep the tongue as low as possible and say "Ah", as if the doctor wanted to examine your t
Chapter I. SOUNDS AND PHONEMES
Speech sounds are grouped into language units called phonemes. A phoneme may be thought of as the smallest contras-tive language unit which exists in the speech of all people belonging to the sam
THE DEGREE OF NOISE
According to the degree of noise English and Russian consonants are divided into two big classes:
Class A. Noise consonants.
Class B. Sonorants.
A. In the production of
Main Principles of Classification of Consonants
According to the Degree of Noise
Class A. Noise Consonants
Class B. Sonorants
Vary:
1 .• In the manner
Classification of English Noise Consonants According to the Degree of Noise
Class A. Noise consonants
b, d.g.v, 0.z, 3,03
p, t. k, Г. 0. s.f.!f.h
According to th
THE MANNER OF ARTICULATION
The manner of articulation of consonants is determined by the type of obstruction. The obstructions may be complete, incomplete and momentary. When the obstruction is complete the organs of speech
Classification of the English Noise Consonants and Sonorants According to the Manner of Articulation
Noise Consonants
Sonorants
Occlusive
stops
(plosives)
Constrictive fricatives
Occlusive-constric
THE PLACE OF ARTICULATION
The place of articulation is determined by the active organ of speech against the point of articulation. There may be one place of articulation or focus, or two places of articulation or foci when
The Classification of English an Russian Foreiingual Consonants According to the Position of the Tip of the Tongue
Apical
Dorsal
Cacuminal
English
Russian
English
Russian
English
Articulation
Labial
Lingual
Glottal
Bilabial
English Stops
^~"-~~-^_^ According to the place —^_^ of articulation According ^~^~-^___^ to the force of articulation-^-^^^
Bilabial
Fore
Fig. 19.
Definition,[t, d] are occlusive, plosive, forelingual, apical, alveolar; [tj is strong and voiceless, [dj is weak and voiced, in final position it is partly devoiced.
Fig. 21
voice
Definition,[k, g) are occlusive, plosive, backlingual, velar; [k] is strong and voiceless, [g] is weak and voiced, in final position it is partly devoiced.
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. Why are the occlusive plosive consonants called 'stops'?
2. Define the stops according to the place of articulation.
3. How are stops divided according to the work of the vocal
Kg. 22. Fig. 23.
Definition,[f, vj are constrictive fricative, labio-dental; [f] is strong and voiceless, [v] is weak and voiced, in the final position it is partly devoiced.
Artic
Fig. 24. Fig. 25.
Articulation.1. The tip of the tongue is either close to the edge of the upper teeth or slightly projected between the teeth.
2. For [9] the vocal cords do not vibrat
Fig. 28.
Definition, [f,3] are constrictive fricative, forelingual, apical, palate-alveolar, bicentral; [Г] is strong and voiceless, [3] is weak <md voiced, in final positio
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What consonant sounds are called 'fricatives'?
2. What fricatives are bicentral?
3. How are fricatives classified according to the place of articula-
tion?
4.
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What consonants are called 'affricates' and why?
2. What is the main difference between occlusive and occlusive-constrictive consonants in the manner of releasing the obstruction?
English Sonorants
^ч. Place of ^•n. articulation
Manner of ^ч. articulation ^v.
Labial
Forelin-gual apical alveolar
Forelin-gual apical post
OCCLUSIVE NASAL SONORANTS
|m] occurs in all word positions, spelt "m, mm, mb, mn", eg mean, summer, seam, comb, autumn
Definition,
Definition.(1] is constrictive, lateral, forelingual, apical, alveo-l.ii.
Articulation. 1. The tip of the tongue is in firm contact with llie alveolar ridge.
If the word is formed of a verb, no [gj is pronounced, eg sing — «i/ii/w. han
Fig. 36. Fig. 37.
2. The soft palate is raised and the air goes freely to the mouth.
3. The sides of the tongue are lowered and the air can pass between them and the palate.
4. The vocal cords are
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What is the main feature of sonorous consonants? Enumerate the English sonorants.
2. What advice regarding the position of the soft palate would you give to a fellow-student who
Chapter III. MODIFICATION OF CONSONANTS IN CONNECTED SPEECH
The complete articulation of a speech sound — a vowel or a consonant — when said by itself in isolation consists of three stages:
1. The on-glide stage during which the articulating
CONSONANT INFLUENCES CONSONANT
In Modern English it is mainly consonants that are assimilated. When the two adjacent sounds are consonants there occur most striking assimilative changes. Since the articulation of any speech sou
FUNDAMENTAL CONSONANT ALLOPHONES
Since all the allophones of the same phoneme differ according to the phonetic context in which they occur, it is necessary to give examples of those allophones which exhibit striking changes of ph
Fig. 45.
Definition,[d] is back, open (broad variant), rounded, short.
Articulation.This vowel is articulated with the mouth wide open and slight open lip-rounding
Fig. 46.
Definition,[э:] is back, open (narrow variant), rounded, long.
Articulation.The tongue is in the back part of the mouth. The back of the tongue is ra
Fig. 47.
Definition,[u] is back-advanced, close (broad variant), rounded, short.
Articulation.The whole body of the tongue is in the back part of the mouth. -The p
Fig. 49.
Definition,[з:] is central, mid (narrow variant), unrounded, long.
Articulation.The tongue is almost flat. The central part of the tongue is slightly high
Fig. 52.
Definition, [u:]is back, close (narrow variant), rounded, long. Articulation.The tongue is in ,the back part of the mouth. The back of the tongue is rather high in
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. Suppose that a fellow-student pronounces the Russian {и] in stead of the English (ij. Keeping in mind what you know about the articulation of the English vowel tell him what to do t
Ai, ay ei, ey
[a]
■ take, paper, made ea
- main, say eigh
■ vein, grey, they
great, break eight, neighbour
Fig. 53.
Definition. The nucleus of the diphthong is front, mid (narrow variant), unrounded.
Articulation. The nucleus is the vowel [ej (see p. 91). For the qiide the tongue moves upward in the di
Fig. 56.
The sound [зо] occurs in all positions of the word, eg орел, road, no.
Allophones.The nucleus of the diphthong [зо] is longer in the open syllable, it is shorter in
Fig. 57.
Definition.The nucleus of the diphthong is central, open (broad variant), unrounded.
Articulation.The starting point of the diphthong is between the back
Fig. 58.
Definition.The nucleus of the diphthong is the front-retracted, close (broad variant), unrounded vowel [i] (not [t]).
Articulation. The nucleus is the vowel [ij
Fig. 60.
Definition.The nucleus of the diphthong is back-advanced, close (broad variant), slightly rounded.
Articulation.The nucleus of the diphthong
English and Russian Vowels
^x The Part x. of the x. Tongue n^ Raised
The Height . of the Tongue X.
Front
Front-retracted
Central
Back-adva
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. How would your fellow-student probably pronounce the English diphthong [eij?
2. Suppose that a fellow-student pronounces the Russian sound combination [ajj instead of the English
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. Suppose your fellow-student pronounces the Russian [j] and [y] instead of the correct second elements in the English vowel sequences [aia, аиэ). What would you advise him to do in order to perf
Chapter V. MODIFICATION OF VOWELS IN CONNECTED SPEECH
' ->
REDUCTION
In English as well as in Russian vowels in unstressed syllables! are usually reduced. The laws of reduction, in these languages are not the
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What phenomenon is called 'reduction'?
2. Name the sounds which are commonly found in the unstressed syllables.
3. In what kind of words do non-reduced vowels occur in unstre
Strong and Weak Forma
Words
Strong Forms
Weak Forms (quantitative reduction, qualitative reduction, elision of sounds)
Examples
С — consonant; "V — vowel 126
Table II, continued
Words
Strong Forms
Weak Forms
Examples
she
Jb
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. Mark sentence-stresses and underline all the content words in the sentence: 'I sent them a photo of the children.' What parts of speech are content words?
2. Mark sentence-stresses and
Chapter I. SYLLABLE FORMATION
A syllable is a speech unit consisting of a sound or a sound sequence one of which is heard to be more prominent than the others. The most prominent sound being the peak or the nucleus of a syllabl
Chapter II. SYLLABLE DIVISION
Syllable formation and syllable division rules appear to be a matter of great practical value to the language learner. They are especially important when it is necessary to know the numbeT of sylla
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What is a syllable?
2. What sounds can form the 'peak' of a syllable?
3. What sonorous sounds are syllabic?
4. What are the two possible ways to pronounce a word with
Chapter I. MANIFESTATION OF WORD STRESS AND ITS LINGUISTIC FUNCTION
i ■ -■ ■ ........................... i
One or more syllables of a polysyllabic word have greater promin
THE DEGREES OF WORD STRESS
In English there are three degrees of word stress: stressed syllables (primary stress), half-stressed syllables (secondary stress) and weak or unstressed syllables. A la
THE POSITION OF WORD STRESS
Word stress in English as well as in Russian is free, in the sense that the primary stress is not tied to any particular syllable m all the words. But it always falls on a particular syllable of an
WORDS WITH PRIMARY AND SECONDARY STRESS
The secondary stress is manifested in polysyllabic words with the primary stress on the third or on the fourth syllable from the beginning, eg ,popu'larity, responsibility.
WORDS WITH TWO PRIMARY STRESSES
The following groups of words have two primary stresses:
1. Polysyllables with separable prefixes having a distinct ueaning of their own.
Negative prefixes un-, dis-, non-, in- (a
STRESS IN COMPOUND WORDS
Words composed of separable root morphemes are called compounds.
The spelling of compound words differs. They may be spelled as one word, with a hyphen or as two separate words. Among comp
WORD STRESS AND RHYTHM
All the above-mentioned words with two equally strong stresses are subjected to the influence of English rhythm in connected speech.
Thus in a double-stressed word the first element is we
THE DISTINCTIVE FUNCTION OF WORD STRESS
A relatively small number of words of the same morphological structure differ in the position of word stress. In this case the opposition of accentual structures differentiates the meaning. T
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What factors create the effect of stress in the English words torment (n) ['to:ment] — torment (v) fto:'ment], concert (n) ['konsatl — concert fv) [kan's3:t] and in Russian
Intonation
Chapter I. MANIFESTATION OF INTONATION AND ITSLINGUISTIC FUNCTION
ii
The information conveyed by a sentence is expressed not only by proper words and gramm
Chapter II. BASIC INTONATION PATTERNS
THE ANATOMY OF INTONATION PATTERNS
It is generally acknowledged that voice pitch or speech melody and sentence stress or accent are the two main components of intonation. Though these ele
THE HEAD
The head in English is an extremely flexible segment. It stretches from the first stressed syllable up to (but not including) the nuclear tone.
Head patterns are classified into three majo
The Low Pre-Head The Low Pre-Nucleus
The Low Pre-Head may occur before any head and the Low Pre-Nucleus is usually heard before all the nuclear tones.
(b) If unstressed or partially stressed syllables are pronounced highe
Ie High Pre-Head The High Pre-Nucleus
The High Pre-Head usually occurs before descending and <iigh or medium level heads. The High Pre-Nucleus can be leard before almost any nuclear tone.
So the рге-heads may
Table of Notation in the Text
Pre-Heads
Heads
Nuclear and
Terminal
Tones
Tails
|~1 — the High
Pre-Head
I,J — partially
stre
EMPHASIS
Intonation groups and sentences can be made to sound more lively, more emotional and more emphatic by means of pitch, i.e. various sections of pitch-and-stress patterns, cf:
I ^didn't with
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. By means of what sections of pitch-and-stress patterns can intonation groups and sentences be made to sound more emphatic?
2. How can the High Pre-Head intensify the meaning of
CLASSIFICATION OF INTONATION PATTERNS
Different combinations of pitch sections (pre-heads, heads and nuclei) may result in more than one hundred pitch-and-stress patterns. But it is not necessary to deal with all of them because some p
INTONATION PATTERNS AND MEANING
This section provides the description of meanings and attitudes conveyed by the patterns of the eight pitch-and-stress groups with no reference to various sentence types. It should be pointed out
Pitch-And-SLress Groupe Usage
Low Fall
High Fall
Rise-Fall
Low Rise
High Rise
Fall-Rise
Rise-Fall
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. How are the patterns of Group I divided according to their usage?
2. Why can Patterns One, Two, Three be referred to the same group according to the expressed attitude?
3. What
Y1-- -Л1.--Л.1---У
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. Why do all the patterns with the Rise-Fall have occasional emphatic usage?
2. How do they all sound? Give your own examples.
3. Suppose you want to sound impressed, awed, smug
Level Head Level Head
eg Statements: I ,know it. (No Head)
I'll re^pair it as 'soon as I /Can.
(F. H.) It's "»all ,right. (H. L. H.) It's _, no trouble at ,all. (M. L. H.)
General questio
Scandent Head
eg Statements:
General questions:
Special questions:
Imperatives (requests):
Exclamations:
There's vno 'need t
Continued
Common Emphatic Usage
Pattern Four (L L. H.)
guarded, reserving some judgement, critical, disapproving, wondering, resentful; in
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. How are the patterns of Group IV divided according to their usage?
2. Give examples with every sentence type pronounced with Patterns One, Two, Three. Say what attitudes are conveyed in
Quot;Л1------- Л
eg Statements:
High Level Head Medium Level Head
I ""* don't revmember I'm a,fraid.
(H. L. H.) I _»d
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What attitudes are conveyed by the speaker in phrases pronounced with Patterns One and Two?
2. If a speaker wants to contradict somebody, sound grumbling and reproachful, what pattern
Chapter 111. INTONATION PATTERNS AND SENTENCE TYPES
In this chapter we shall consider the effect of theintonation patterns in association with each of the five main sentence types: statements, special questions (very often called 'w
I. STATEMENTS
1. Statements are most widely used with the Low (Medium) Fall preceded by the Falling Head or the High (Medium) Level Head. In all these cases they are final, complete and definite, eg:
It
III. GENERAL QUESTIONS
1. General questions are most common with the low risincj tone preceded by the Falling Head or the High (Medium) Level Head. With these patterns they sound genuinely interested, eg:
B. Requests
1.Requests with the Low Rise preceded by the Falling or the High (Medium) Level Heads sound soothing, encouraging, per haps calmly patronising, eg:
-* Don't ,move
The falling-rising tone may be also treated as a more expressive variant I l he rising tone.
The terminal tone of the final intonation group is generally determined by the communicative sentence type and the attitudes conveyed by the speaker. Statements commonly sound ■ itti the Low
Adverbial Phrases
Adverbial phrases at the beginning of a simple sentence normally form a separate intonation group pronounced with the Low Rise or the Mid Level, eg:
> Yesterday | I "* stayed ^ in
Enumeration
Enumeration in simple sentences is represented by a number of homogeneous parts. Each of them is pronounced as a separate intonation group.
The terminal tone of the final intonation group
Disjunctive Questions
Disjunctive questions being simple sentences consist of at least two sense-groups represented by a statement (affirmative or negative) and a tag question (negative or affirmative), corresponding t
Direct Address
Direct address can stand in sentence initial, medial and final positions. In sentence initial position it commonly forms an intonation group pronounced with the Low Fall in formal, serious speech
Parentheses
Parentheses, consisting of a word, word combination or a clause show the speaker's attitude towards the idea expressed in the sentence, connect the sentence with another one or summarize what is s
Parentheses
Parentheses, consisting of a word, word combination or a clause show the speaker's attitude towards the idea expressed in the sentence, connect the sentence with another one or summarize what is s
COMPOUND SENTENCES
The sequence of tones in compound sentences consisting of two or more coordinated clauses depends on the degree of their semantic unity. If the non-final intonation group (a clause) is
COMPLEX SENTENCES
Complex sentences contain the principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. The latter may follow the principal clause, precede it or break the main clause into two parts.
If the s
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What determines the choice of the final terminal tone?
2. Explain the use of the low rising tone in the sentence:
'/Sometimes | I Vcome 'home xearly.'
What
QUESTIONS AND T.SKS
1. In what way are tie words in a sentence made prominent?
2. How is the promnence of words realized?
3. What is the mail function of sentence-stress?
4. Which is the mot
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What is speech rhythm?
2. What are the characteristic features of English rhythm?
3. How does the English rhythm differ from Russian?
4. What is a rhythmic group?
Chapter I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Phonostylistics came into existence as an attempt to start bridging the gap between linguistic and extra-linguistic factors in analysing stylistic differentiation of oral texts.
Phonostyli
Words that Imitate Sounds Produced by Animals
RUSSIAN
ENGUSH
SPANISH
DANISH
JAPANESE
гав-гав
bow-wow
guau-guag
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. Speak on linguistic and extra-linguistic factors. What is the difference between them?
2. How did phonostylistics come into existence?
3. What does the term "phonostylisti
Chapter II. STYLISTICUSE OF INTONATION
Intonation plays a central role in stylistic differentiation of oral texts. Stylistically explicable deviations from intonational norms reveal conventional patterns differing from language to langu
Intonational Styles and Speech Typoliogy Correlation
Speech typology-
Intona- tional styles
Varieties of language
Forms of communication
Degrete of speeich preparedness
Pattern Two: (Low Pre-Head +) FalUng Head + High FaU (+ ТаШ
Statement
Attitude:final, categoric, complete, definite, involved, eg: Stimulus: It's his turn now. Response: I Iquite 'thought it was VMINE.
Pattern Six: (Low Pre-Head +) Scandent Head + Low Rise (+Tail) on
Pattern Seven: High Pre-Nucleus + Low Rise (+ Tail)
The attitudesare basically the same as those conveyed by Patterns 1—3, but the meaning is intensified.
Pattern Three: (Low Pre-Head +) Rising Head + High (Medium) Rise (+ Tail).
Special Question
Attitude:unpleasantly surprised, puzzled, sometimes disapproving, eg:
Stimulus: They behaved like a couple of stuffed dummies.
Pattern Four: (Low Pre-Head +) Climbing Head + High (Medium) Rise (+ Tail).
The attitudesare basically the same as those conveyed by Pattern Three but the meaning is intensified.
Special Question
Stimulus: Why didn't you write to t
Pattern Two: (Low Pre-Head +) Falling Head + Fall-Rise (+ Tail).
Statement
Attitude:grudgingly admitting, reluctantly or defensively dissenting, concerned, reproachful, hurt/reserved, tentatively sug? gesting, eg:
Stimulus:
Pattern One: (Low Pre-Nucleus +) Mid-Level (+ Tail) or
Pattern Two: (Low Pre-Head +) High (Medium) Level Head + Mid-Level (+Tail)
Attitude:conveying the impression of non-finality, expectancy, hesitation; some
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
I
1. What are the characteristic features of informational (formal) ( style? Analyse and read extracts exemplifying this style. Take ', into
Assimilation
1. This exercise illustrates some special pronunciation which the stops have When immediately followed by [n] or [m]. There is no sound at all between the stop and [n] or [mj. Learners must endeavo
Diphthongoids
1.Listen how the speaker on the tape reads the following words.
easy, eager, sea, tea, seem, please, meat, weak
2. Read the words yourself. Pay attention to the v
Diphthongs
(ei]
1.Listen how the speaker on the tape pronounces the following words:
aim, aid, day, bay, name, same, late, fate
2. Read the wor
MODIFICATION OF VOWELS IN CONNECTED SPEECH
Reduction
1. Transcribe the following words, paying particular attention to the location of the stresses and to the vowels in the unstressed syllables. Underline them.
hopeless, e
INFORMATIONAL (FORMAL) STYLE
1. This exercise is meant to develop your ability to hear and reproduce the kind of intonation used in informational style (news coverage).
(a) Listen to the following broadcast ne
SCIENTIFIC (ACADEMIC) STYLE
1. This exercise is meant to develop your ability to hear and reproduce the kind of intonation used in a lecture on a scientific subject.
(a) Listen to the following lecture carefully, se
DECLAMATORY STYLE
1. This exercise is meant to develop your ability to hear and reproduce the kind of intonation used'in reading aloud a piece of descriptive prose.
(a) Listen to the following text carefull
Those Evening Bells
Those evening bells! Those evening bells! How many a tale their music tells, Of love, and home, and that sweet time, When last I heard their soothing chime! Those joyous hours are passed away! And
Bonnie Bell
The smiling spring comes in rejoicing.
And surly winter grimly flies:
Now crystal clear are the falling waters.
And bonnie blue are the sunny skies;
Fresh o'er t
PUBLICISTIC STYLE
1. This exercise is intended to develop your ability to hear and reproduce the kind of intonation used in publicistic style (oratory and speeches).
(a) Listen to the following text carefu
FAMILIAR (CONVERSATIONAL) STYLE
All the exercises given here for Groups I—VIII are meant to develop your ability to reproduce intonation patterns in proper speech situations. Work at the conversational contexts in the way suggest
In this conversation in a cafe the woman is very cold and re served. Listen carefully and concentrate on what she says
Make up similar conversational situations and act them with your fellow-student.
— Do you mind if I sit here?
— No.
— Nice day today, isn't it?
— Yes.
Pattern Three. (Low Pre-Head +) High (Medium) Head + High
Fall (+Tail)
Model: What was the ~* First * rate.
show like?
Stimulus Response
When's the concert? Next Sunday.
It's going to be
Pattern Five. (Low Pre-Head +) Stepping Head + High Fall
(+Tail)
Pattern Six. (Low Pre-Head +) Sliding Head (High Falls) + High
Fall (+Tail)
Model: I can't find my vAre you ^sure you
purse anywhere. ^didn'tvleave it at
the office?
iAi
Pattern Five. (Low Pre-Head +) Stepping Head + High Fall
(♦Tail)
Stimulus Response
Do you think I should Mightn't it be better to wait?
ring him?
I hate the thought of Ought we to delay it
Pattern Four. (Low Pre-Head +) Stepping Head + Rise-Fall
(♦Tail)
Model: Jane was quite You can vhardly 'blame the
at a loss. л girl.
Stimulus Response
Are you fond of
Pattern Four. (Low Pre-Head +) Stepping Head + Rise Fall
(+Tail)
Stimulus Response
Why are you so angry with I don't think you're aware of
her? what she's done.
She refused to help us again. Wha
Pattern Five. (Low Pre-Head +) Stepping Head + Low Rise
(+Tail)
Model: I can't take all Well then Чаке as 'many
of them. as you, can.
Stimulus Response
Have you finished with I'll do it
Pattern Five. (Low Pre-Head +) Stepping Head + Low Rise
(+Tail)
Stimulus Response
I feel very tired these days. You mustn't work too hard at
night. I'll be seeing you on Tuesday. I shan't be coming here
Pattern Two. (Low Рте-Head +) Falling Head + Fall-Rise
(+Tail)
Model: One more game? You'llv miss your v train.
Stimulus Response
It shouldn't take long. It'll take at least a mon
Pattern Two. (Low Pre-Head+) Falling Head + Fall-Rise
(+ Tail)
Stimulus Response
You liked the film, didn't It's more interesting than I ex-
you? pected.
I shan't go with you. What made you c
Pattern Two. (Low Pre-Head +) High (Medium) Head + Mid
Level (+Tail)
Model: What shall we do?
Ring her > up f an
Adverbials
1.Listen how the speaker on the tape reads the following sen tences with adverbial phrases. Concentrate on sequence of tones. Imitate the reading. Practise reading them. B
Commands
1. Listen how the speaker on the tape reads the following com mands. Concentrate on their intonation. Imitate the reading.
(a) Fetch a chair, will you? Write it down, will you?
Direct Address
Listen how the speaker on the tape reads the following sentences with direct address at the beginning of the sentence. Imitate the reading.
Porter, will you see to my luggage, please? Pat
Direct Address
Listen how the speaker on the tape reads the following sentences with direct address at the beginning of the sentence. Imitate the reading.
Porter, will you see to my luggage, please? Pat
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