THE PRE-ATOMIC AGE - раздел Иностранные языки, THE PRE_ATOMIC AGE Ancient Greek Philosophers Were The First Known Scientists To Suggest That Ma...
Ancient Greek philosophers were the first known scientists to suggest that matter was made up of small, unseen elements, a theory described as “atomism” by Democritus of Abdera in the 5th century ВС. Earlier philosophers, and mathematicians such as Pythagoras, had suggested that regular solids were fundamental parts of the universe, and Democritus’ teacher, Leucippus, had introduced him to the idea of an atomic system. Democritus, however, elaborated on the earlier concepts and proposed a more detailed system that inspired both followers and disbelievers. Democritus’ ideas remained the most sophisticatedconcepts of atomic structure - and indeed maintained the concept of the atom itself- until modern times.
Democritus’ theory was based on the principle that all matter is composed of atoms: solid bits of matter of various sizes and shapes, but so small as to be invisible to the naked eye, and indestructible - the word “atom” comes from the Greek atomos, which means “cannot be cut.” At an atomic level, atoms created by the disintegration of matter, moving through space, could reform into new matter as atoms were joined together. In this fashion, all that was in the world had been created.
While Democritus’ theory, and his followers’ adaptations of it, ultimately carried the concept of the atom into the modern era, his own writings were lost in antiquity. Ironically, although his theory was quoted in the writings of his follower Epicurus (themselves quoted and preserved in a 2nd-century AD Roman work), it was rather the detailed attacks of Aristotle (who did not believe in atoms) in the 4th century AD that kept Democritus’ ideas alive. Aristotle’s arguments were echoed by other ancient philosophers and men of science in antiquity, including Cicero, Seneca, and Galen.
Based on the strength of Aristotle's reputation, which lived on past the end of the Roman Empire, his opposition to atomism also outlasted the ancient era. Arguing, among other things, that Democritus had theorized that there was “no end of the universe, since it was not created by any outside power,” the Catholic Church regarded atomism asmisguided at best, heresy at worst.
Adherents of atomic theory rediscovered Democritus in the 13th century, as ancient works saved by Arab scholars were translated into Latin. By the 15th century, some Renaissance scholars braved papal disapproval for discussing atomism. It was not until the 16th century, however, that the concept regained attention as attacks on Aristotle coincided with the repudiationofCatholicism by Luther and others. As science developed in the late 16th and early 17th century, Aristotelian beliefs began to crumble. The invention of the barometer and the air pump in 1634 and 1654 respectively demonstrated that vacuum - a concept Aristotle had condemned - did in tact exist. If it did, then perhaps so, too, did atoms.
French scientist Pierre Gasscndi (1592-1655) led the revival of atomism in 1649 when he published Syntagmaphilosophiae Epicuri and argued for atoms, suggesting that they were created by God and were solid, indestructible masses that move by the grace of God to form groups that Gassendi called moleculae or corpuscular. Gassendi essentially parroted Democritus, but by cleverly insisting that atoms were a gift from God, and a manifestation of His power, Gassendi shifted atomism into an argument that the Church no longer opposed. By 1704, Isaac-Newton could write, therefore, that “It seems probable to me, that God in the beginning formed matter in solid, hard, massy, impenetrable, moveable particles, of such sizes and figures, and with such other properties, and in such proportion tospace, as most conduced to the end to which he formed them.”
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Pre-reading tasks
1. The text you are to read is headlined “The Pre-atomic Age”. In your opinion, what can it run about?
2. Think of and write down 4-5 questions the answers to which you expect
Comprehension check
1. Choose the best ending a, b, or c to complete the sentences.
1. Ancient Greek philosophers
a) were the first to suppose that matter was composed of small
Vocabulary work
1. The words given in A are used in the text above. Find their synonyms in B.
A
B
to suggest
Pre-reading tasks
1. Have you ever heard about John Dalton, Heinrich Geissler, William Crookes?
2. Can you recollect what they are famous for? What contributions to science did they make?
Comprehension check
1. Consult the text above and complete the following sentences.
1. Atomism reentered scientific ... in the 19th century.
2. Dalto
Pre-reading tasks
1. Do you know:
a) the names of Henri Becquerel and Pierre and Marie Curie? What are they famous?
b) when the Curies and Becquerel worked?
c) what
HENRI BECQUEREL AND THE CURIES’ DISCOVERIES
X-rays were only the first, surprise of the 1890s. New rays were soon detected which proved to be even more profoundly alien to known science.
The French p
Comprehension check
1. Match the discoveries and inventions with the names of scientists.
Marie Curie
found out that uranium salt emitted pen
Vocabulary work
1. There are some words given in bold type in the text. Choose their synonyms in the box below.
to emit
to discover
Pre-reading tasks
1. The text you are going to read is headlined “Further advances in the field of radioactivity”. In your opinion,
- what does it run about?
- what
FURTHER ADVANCES IN THE FIELD OF RADIOACTIVITY
Their work, which led to the Nobel Prize for both (and two prizes for Marie, a rare honor), confirmed the cathode-ray research of British scientist J. J.Thomson, who had experimente
RADIOACTIVITY AND RADIOACTIVE EXPOSURES
Radioactivity and the associated radiation exposures are sometimes thought of as environmental problems that have been created by modern science and technology. However, substantial
Pre-reading tasks
1. If you were asked to make a report on the theme “From nuclear reactions to nuclear fission” which events would you include in it and what scientists would you mention? Comment
FROM NUCLEAR REACTIONS TO NUCLEAR FISSION
In 1913, Neils Bohr, a brilliant Danish physicist and a post-doctoral student of Rutherford’s, elaborated and modified Rutherford’s model by incorporating quantum mechanical (the study of mechanica
Comprehension check
1. Some dates, namely years are mentioned in the text. Match them with the events described.
J. Chadwick discovered the
Vocabulary work
1. The words given in two columns of the box are mentioned in the text and they have similar meanings. Find and name these pairs.
A
Pre-reading tasks
1. The paragraphs of the text given below are jumbled. Arrange them in the logical order. Comment on your choice of paragraphs succession.
2. You are sure to know the name of a f
SPECULATIONS BEFORE THE DISCOVERY OF FUSION
Atomic energy, now usually called nuclear energy, became a gleam in the eye of scientists in the early part of the 20th century. The possibility that the atom held a vast
Pre-reading tasks
1. Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner, Fritz Strassman made several key breakthroughs revealing secrets of nuclear fission. Can you give any information about these scientists? If nothing is known to you,
REVEALING SECRETS OF NUCLEAR FISSION
Enrico Fermi and his colleagues missed a reaction in the uranium which would later be determined to be the first example of nuclear fission. The task, therefore, fell tо scientist Otto Hahn, who wa
Comprehension check
1. Match the names of scientists with the information about them. (Sometimes information refers to more than one scientist).
Otto Hahn
co
Vocabulary work
1. Find synonyms or antonyms among the words given in italics in the text and name them. Be careful as the verbs are used in different forms
2. Fill in the tab
Follow-up activities
1. In pairs, discuss the information given in the text.
2. Make up a short report based on the text. (Presenting only key ideas).
3. Find some add
FISSION AND THE FIRST REACTORS
Fission of uranium was discovered—or, more precisely, recognized for what it was—in 1938. Scientists quickly recognized that large amounts of energy are released in fission and that
Pre-reading tasks
1.In the text below the names of Henri Becquerel, Pierre and Marie Curie, Ernest Rutherford are mentioned. Recollect what each of them is famous for. The table below will help you to fulfill the
RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS AS SOURCES OF NUCLEAR ENERGY
Radioactive … involves the spontaneous disintegration of an atomic nucleus. As the nucleus …, various particles as well as high-energy electromagnetic waves are … . Ra
Pre-reading tasks
1. The text you are to read is headlined “Boiling water reactors”. In your opinion, what problems are discussed in this text?
2. If you were to make a report on this theme wha
BOILING WATER REACTORS
Consider the simplified schematic of one of the most common types of nuclear reactor, a boiling water reactor. (See the accompanying illustration.) Boiling water reactors were firs
GLOBAL WARMING AND NUCLEAR POWER
The idea behind global warming is simple enough. Earth’s atmosphere retains some of the heat that Earth receives from the Sun. The amount of heat retained depends upon the chemical composition of t
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