GRAMMAR IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR IN KNOWLEDGE - раздел Философия, Lectures in Theory of ENGLISH Grammar When Asked What Is Grammar, People Usually Say That It Is A Set Of Rules For ...
When asked what is Grammar, people usually say that it is a set of rules for correct use of words and making sentences. This definition may be accepted if we mean that Grammar is presentation of our knowledge of ... Grammar. Rules are established by someone who knows the matter, in our case by someone who knows Grammar. Thus the popular definition of Grammar implies that there are at least two sorts of it: one being a part of the language, and another being a result of our activity to understand the Grammar of a language.
Since the latter depends on the former it is necessary to find what part of the language structure can be called Grammar.
Initially the term Grammar was used to name the art of writing and reading(in Greek it sounded grammatika techne - grammatika tecnh) and it included all that we now know as Linguistics. Much later it split into the study of words and their meanings now known as Lexicology, then into the study of sounds, now known as Phonetics and Phonology. Rhetorics left its philosophical height and appeared in Linguistics in the form of Stylistics.. And what was left was called Grammar.
Even in this respect the term Grammar may have at least three possible interpretations. Some linguists oppose Morphology as the study of words and their forms to the study of sentences and their parts which they name Grammar. This use of the term is in clear contrast to the ancient, original employment of the term. Initially Grammar only meant what we now call Morphology, while the study of word combinations was called Accidence. But the most popular at present usage of the term unites Morphology (the study of words and their forms) and Syntax (the study of word combinations and sentences) under one heading Grammar.
Thus Grammar most often is used as the name for those parts of Language which are left after cutting off Phonetics and Phonology, Lexicology, and Stylistics. But this definition is a negative one, it says what Grammar should not be, while we need a positive definition saying what Grammar is.
This can be done by comparing Grammar as a part of Language to other divisions which can be considered as better and positively defined. These are the phonetical and the lexical systems, studied by Phonetics, Phonology and Lexicology.
The evident difference between Phonetics and Phonology on one hand and Grammar on the other is their relations to meaning. The role of meaning in the phonetic studies is very abstract - phonetic features must differentiate meanings, but is irrelevant what are the meanings that are differentiated. In contrast to it Grammar has to define the meanings of its units as accurate as possible. Thus we can say that Grammar is virtually meaningful.
But meanings are one the of the most important requisites of Lexicon. So we have to say that both Grammar and Lexicology are meaningful. Thus we must find the difference in something else. Some grammarians try to prove that the difference is the meanings themselves. They say that grammatical meanings are general and abstract while lexical are more specific and concrete. But it is difficult to more abstract and more general meanings than those of the words "abstract" or "general. But what id more important and in fact decisive is that the same meanings can be expressed both by words, i.e. lexically, and by forms, i.e. grammatically. The idea of quantity can be shown: by words "number", "quantity"; by forms of nouns, e.g. "bee - bees"; by forms of verbs, e.g. "she speaks - they speak, I am speaking - we are speaking"; by forms of two pronouns, e.g. "this - these, that - those". We cannot but notice a great difference in the way of showing the meaning. We need one word to name that meaning, either "quantity" or "number". But we need at least two forms to express the meaning grammatically, and these forms must have different oppositive meanings, otherwise the meaning is not expressed. I means that when we express a meaning grammatically we always imply at least two more: a meaning opposite to the one expressed, without which it cannot even be thought about, and a meaning that is a common part of those opposed. So we say "the dog" we understand that one dog is meant because English has the form "dogs" which means "more than one" and these two express a general idea of quantity, which idea expressed in this way make the form "dog" mean "one" and the form "dogs" - "more than one".
Thus we can conclude that GRAMMAR IS A SYSTEM IN LANGUAGE WHICH PRESENTS MEANING THROUGH OPPOSITION OF VARIANTS OF UNITS
Lectures in Theory of ENGLISH Grammar... PART Chapter General Notions of Grammar...
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GRAMMAR AS KNOWLEDGE OF LANGUAGE
In the previous section we found that Grammar as a part of Language is a system presenting meaning through oppositions of variant of units. In this section we shall try to define Grammar as a scien
VARIANTS OF GRAMMARS
Grammatical studies are usually done with a certain aim in mind, and grammatical descriptions vary with them.
There are two main purposes people describe the Grammar of a language. One typ
TYPES OF GRAMMATICAL ANALYSIS
As it was shown in §1, grammatical features are results of formal and meaningful oppositions of variants of units. But in actual speech we hear (or see) only one of the variants. It means that we h
DISTRIBUTIONAL GRAMMAR. SEGMENTATION PROCEDURES
In §4 we defined distributional Grammar as such description of a grammatical system which starts at the positional (syntagmatic) properties of units. In this section we shall discuss the procedures
DISTRIBUTIONAL GRAMMAR. BASIC NOTIONS.
What has been described is only prerequisite of the analysis. The analysis proper of three steps:
a) identifying environments;
b) arranging distribution;
c) comparing dis
DISTRIBUTIONAL GRAMMAR. IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENTS
Distributional analysis does not usually stop here, but endeavours to discover relations of units within the frame of the larger ones. The methods used at this step is known as IMMEDIATE
He sat looking at the silent telephone.
A)The splitting procedure
The first division should be placed after He. So we receive two constituents of the first level: He and
TRANSFORMATIONAL GRAMMAR. BASIC NOTIONS.
In §7 we found that analytical methods and procedures depend upon the idea of Language. One of the most popular images of Language is presenting it as a mechanism for creating, producing linguistic
TRANSFORMATIONAL GRAMMAR. ANALYTIC PROCEDURES
The aim of the transformational analysis is to discover how the sentence under analysis is generated. To achieve this objective we have to find the kernel structures which are the part of the deep
CATEGORIAL GRAMMAR. GRAMMATICAL MEANING
In §1 we found that that grammar is a system in language which presents meaning through opposition of variants of units. This idea is the basic statement which makes it possible to deduce a great n
CATEGORIAL GRAMMAR. CATEGORIES.
The notion of grammatical category has a great number of different definitions. And still in all of them the key words are general and obligatory. Keeping that in mind we should develop such defini
STRATIFICATION OF LANGUAGE
As we already know the Grammar of Language embraces all its levels and units. The problem here is: How many and what sorts of units must we recognise to be sure that our model of Language (=theory
CATEGORIAL GRAMMAR. DIVISION OF GRAMMAR
As we saw in §14 Grammar may be spread to all types of units and units possess quite different functions and other features Grammar as a system of meaningful oppositions should also have properties
CATEGORIAL GRAMMAR. MORPHOLOGY
As it was shown in§15 Morphology is to be defined in two ways: according to the units described in it and according to properties of the units.
You know since your school years that morpho
CATEGORIAL GRAMMAR. SYNTAX
As it was shown in§15 Syntax is to be defined in two ways: according to the units described in it and according to properties of the units.
The units which are explored with the syntactica
MORPHOLOGICAL TYPOLOGY
As it was shown in § 16 Morphology includes several types of units and two types of grammatical meanings which employ the units as their forms. Besides connection with grammatical meanings the unit
SYNTACTICAL TYPOLOGY
Syntax as a part of grammatical description covers not only grammatical features of sentences, but also their referential meaning (semantic syntax). As a result variants of syntactic units which co
UNITS LARGER THAN A SENTENCE
As we saw in §14, grammatical features may be found in the units larger than a sentence, namely, in the utterances, communicative parts and dialogues. But as we have already mentioned above, these
General remarks.
Traditionally units larger than a sentence are considered to be properties of Speech but not Language. The reason is that a unit of language must be a recurrent, that is repeated element. In this r
Dialogues
If we take the dialogue of the previous section and change its social setting we would receive quite a different structure. Let us see how the dialogue about finding out time can be formed in case
Communicative part
Communicative parts are seldom recognised as linguistic units. The reason is that dialogues or events of communication are usually divided into steps of communication comprising normally two or mor
Illocution
Illocution is what the speaker wants of his or her partner. It can be shown by the verbs that are caller performative. A performative verb is a verb in the form of the first person Present I
Sentence. Definition.
Before we start discussing grammatical features of sentences we have to define their specific property which differentiates them from other units. In the linguistic theory we can find a great numbe
Structural Types of Sentences.
Structural types of sentences depend upon the way the most important features of the sentence, and namely, predicativity, is reflected in their structure. Since predicativity has three features, th
Communicative types of sentences
The structural types of sentences described in the previous section do not have connections with any special meanings. Yet if we take a sentence and start changing its structure we may observe that
The formal structure of sentences
The formal structure might be presented in several ways. Some of them where described in Chapter One §§ 5-7. A sentence might be presented as a sequence of distributional classes of words. But this
Subject
We defined the subject as such element of a sentence that embodies the personal feature of the predicativity. But this definition does not show formal and semantic (referential) characteristics of
Attribute
Attributes were defined as elements of noun groups. Forms and compositions of adjectives are very variable. The variability of the form of the attribute to a large extent depends on the class of th
Adverbial modifier
The forms and semantic features of adverbial modifies are even more variable than those of attributes. The adverbial modifies might be composed of adverbs, prepositional phrases, verbals and verbal
Phrases and forms of word connections
The IC analysis splits a sentence into phrases that is groups of words connected together. The same groups are found in sentences if we use other types of syntactical analysis. The logical connecti
General remarks
The sentence was defined as a model of some fragment of the world. Besides it is a word or a group of words having predicativity. predicativity was defined as reference of the contents of the utter
Members of the sentence as semantic description of a sentence
The system of members of sentence was initially a syncretic description of form and meaning of elements of a sentence. The meaning of a sentence was identified with a logical union and namely the j
Valence Theory
There were many attempts to overcome inconsistencies of the method of members of sentence. One of the most systematic approaches is known as the valence theory. It is usually considered that the fo
Deep Case Theory
Transformational grammar was the starting point of a rather influentional theory of sentence meaning known as the Deep Case Theory or the Frame Theory. It should be immediately noted that this theo
Compositional Syntax
The concept named "Compositional Syntax" was first formulated and further developed in the Minsk State Linguistic University and more exactly at the department of History and Grammar of E
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