SUPPLEMENT

Astronomy - astronomer	Geography - geographer
Biochemistry - biochemist	History - historian
Biology - biologist	Linguistics - linguist
Biophysics - biophysicist	Literature - specialist in literature
Botany - botanist	Mathematics - mathematician
Chemistry - chemist	Mechanics - specialist in  Mechanics
Geology - geologist	Medicine - physician
Cytology - cytologist	Philosophy - philosopher
Economy - economist	Physics - physicist
Electrical engineering - electrical  engineer

 

Exercises 1.Read the sentences and translate them into Russian paying special attention to new words.

 

1. Hopkins was educated at a private school.

2. He took his first training in the Laboratory of Consulting Chemist.

3. He combined activities in research with clinical work.

4. After taking his degree at the University of London he became a member of the staff of the medical school.

5. He joined the illustrious school of physiology which Foster was founding.

6. He early realized the urgent needs of biochemistry.

7. Biochemistry was then entering its modern phase, under F. Hoppe-Seyler and F. Hofmeister.

8. In 1906 while a reader in chemical physiology he announced the important of vitamins.

9. In collaboration with the late Sir. W. Fletcher he did research into the chemical changes that accompany muscle contraction.

10. In 1929 he was joint winner of the Nobel prize in physiology for his contribution on growth-promoting.

11. He held many honorary degrees.

 

Exercises 2.Answer the following questions.

 

1. Where did Hopkins receive his primary education?

2. Where did he take his first training? (Where did he do his first studies?).

3. Was he engaged in any activities outside his research?

4. Where did he take his degree?

5.What hospital did he work at?

6. What did M. Foster propose to him?

7. What was one of the urgent needs of biochemistry at that time?

8. What was Hopkins famous far?

9. In what field of science did he wok?

10.  Why can Hopkins be considered the father of vitamin chemistry?

11. What research did he do in collaboration with Fletcher?

12. In what areas was he a pioneer?

13. What fundamental contribution did he make in 1921?

14. What won Hopkins the Nobel prize?

15. Did he hold any scientific degrees?

 

Exercises 3.Confirm the statements below. Use words and expressions from the text instead of given in the exercise:

 

Model: 1. To my knowledge, Hopkins was a distinguished scientist.

 2. Yes, (that's right; you're right; exactly, etc.) he was a famous biochemist.

 

1. As far as I know, Hopkins received education at private school.

2. He did his first studies in the Laboratory of Consulting Chemist, didn't he?

3.  From what I know, he took up his medical studies in 1888.

4. I know that Hopkins not only did research but also carried out clinical work.

5. If I am not mistaken, Hopkins graduated from the University of London.

6. As far as I remember, after graduation Hopkins came to work at the medical school of Guy's hospital.

7. He became would-famous for his researches and discoveries, didn't he?

8. If I remember right, working together with W. Fletcher Hopkins studied chemical changes that accompany muscle contraction.

9. As far as I know, in 1929 he shared the Nobel prize in medicine and physiology with Eichman for his contribution on growth-promoting vitamins.

 

Text 11

Carnegie Institution of Washington

 

A little over sixty years ago, on January 28, 1902 Andrew Carnegie founded what was to became a new kind of institution for America: the first to be devoted wholly to fundamental research over wide fronts of science, in the most completely basic aspect.

The Carnegie Institution of Washington was established specifically to encourage, in the broadest and most liberal manner, investigation, research, and discovery and the application of knowledge to the improvements of mankind.

The scientist in the Department of the Institution have no commitment except to carry on research; they are not required to teach they choose their own fields of investigation.

Carnegie Institution scientists in the last sixty years have made far-ranging major contributions to knowledge in almost every field of science. They have been pioneers in opening new areas.

At present, Carnegie Institution's interests are mainly in three broad fields:

1) the form, contents and dynamics of the universe;

2) the structure and evolution of the earth;

3) the frontiers of biology.

Work in these pioneering areas is being carried on in six research centres operated by the Institution and by individual scientists and research teams.

The six research centres are:

The Mount Wilson and Palomar Observatories which are operated jointly by the Carnegie Institution and California Institute of Technology.

These observatories have two of the world's largest telescopes, and are currently engaged in programs on the physical nature and evolution of celestial bodies, and on the structure and dimentions of the Universe.

The Geophysical Laboratory which conduct broad physiochemical studies on the structure, formation and evolution of the Earth's crust to learn more about the physical and biological history, composition and internal make up of our planet.

The department of Terrestrial Magnetism. Research at this Department covers a wide range of subjects including the magnetic and electrical fields of the earth, radio astronomy, geophysics of the earth's crust and mantle, isotope geology, nuclear physics and biosynthesis, touching also on basic genetics.

The Department of Embriology. There are investigated the processes by means of which egg cells develop into individual.

The Department if Biology at Stanford, California. This Department studies photosynthesis, by which plants manufacture organic matter.

The Genetic Research Unit at Cold Spring Harbor, New York. Studies undertaken by this Unit consider the mechanism by which life processes are directed in the living cell.

 In addition to its own full-time staff, the Carnegie Institution annually invites selected scientists of international reputation to spend time at its research centres, making use of the specialized instruments and facilities of the Institution.

The results of the Institution's research are feely and promptly presented to the world through scientific journals and scientific meetings, lectures and symposia. In all, the Institution has published more than 800 titles, some consisting of several volumes.

 

Exercises 1.Give Russian equivalents to the sentences below paying special attention to the new words.

 

1. On January 28, 1902 Andrew Carnegie founded what was to became a new kind of institution for America.

2. Carnegie Institution was the first to be devoted wholly to fundamental research over wide fronts of science in the most completely basic aspect.

3. Carnegie Institution was established specifically to encourage investigation, research and discovery.

4. The only commitment of the scientists of this Institution is to carry on research.

5. They choose their own fields of investigation.

6. The scientists in the last sixty years have made far-ranging major contributions to knowledge.

7. Work in the pioneering areas is being carried on in six research centres.

8. The research centres are operated by the Institution and by individual scientists and research teams.

9. The observatory is currently engaged in programs on the physical nature and evolution of celestial bodies.

10.The Geophysical Laboratory conducts broad studies on the structure, formation and evolution of the earth's crust.

11. Research at this Department covers a wide range of subjects.

 

Exercises 2.Answer the questions.

 

1. Who was the founder of the Carnegie Institution?

2. When was the Carnegie Institution founded?

3. What was the Carnegie Institution to be developed to?

4. What is the only commitment of the scientists of the C.I.?

5. What contribution did the scientists of this Institution make to knowledge?

6. Now many research centres carry on work in the pioneering areas?

7. How are the research centres operated?

8. What is the observatory currently engaged in?

9. What kinds of studies does the Geophysical Laboratory conduct?

10.Where are biological studies carried on at the Carnegie Institution?

11.Whom does the Carnegie Institution annually invite to carry on studies so as to use the facilities of the Institution?

12.How are the results of the Institution's research presented to the world?

 

Exercises 3.Answer the following questions.

 

A

1. What Institute do you work at?

2. Where is it situated?

3. When was it founded?

4. Who was the founder of your Institute.

5. What kind of research does your Institute carry on?

6. Does your Institute consist of laboratories or departments?

7. What field of investigations have you chosen?

8. Who manages the Institute you work at?

9. Do you carry on individual research (work)?

10.How many research teams have you got at your laboratory?

11.What is the full-time staff of your Institute?

12.What are the facilities available at your Institute (laboratory)?

13.Is an applied research encouraged at your Institute?

14.Did your supervisor encourage you to read a paper at the conference?

15.What theory is your experiment based on?

16.What methods do you apply in your research?

17.Are there any scientists of international reputation working at your Institute?

18.Does your research cover a wide range of subjects?

19.What problems are you going to touch on in your thesis?

 

B

20.What is the subject of your thesis?

21.When did you get interested in the problem?

22.Who encouraged your interest in the problem?

23.Who advised you to take up this problem?

24.What is the aim of your study (research)?

25. What kind of work is it: experimental or theoretical?

26.How long have you been working at the problem?

27.How any chapters (parts) do you plan to have in your thesis?

28.When are you going to read your thesis?

 

Text 12

Schools Brief

The aim of science is to fond reliable knowledge about the world. The reliability that people have come to expect from the natural sciences comes, in large part, from experiment. Some sciences, such as astronomy, tend to concern themselves more with observation than experiment as such. But they all rely on physical laws that have been, to some extent and at some point, experimentally tested.

In principle, the difference between an experiment and a simple observation is this: in experiment some aspect of nature is under the control of the experimenter. (In practice, the difference is not always so clear). Sometimes the control is precise and meticulous; laboratories are there to make such control possible. In other cases it is all but notional - a mere knowledge of what would have happened if the experimenter had remained passive enough to provide "a control".

For one explanation of the importance of experiment, consider a little philosophy. The most influential philosophical account of science this century if that given by Sir Karl Popper. Sir Karl claims that there is an asymmetry between truth and falsehool; no statements can be proved true, but some statements can be proved false. Science, he continued, is defined by this falsifiability - it is the fact that they can be proved false, but have not been, which gives accepted scientific statements their value.

In this view of science, controlled experiment seems to take on primary importance, providing a way of testing statements about the world against the world. Yet Sir Karl is not much interested in the practice of experiment; he is interested in the idea of falsification. That makes things easier; the practical matter of doing experiments is cassier than the notional procedure of falsifying statements. Few experimenters plan their work in terms of falsification of particular statements - though it is possible, after the fact, to say that that is what they have been doing. Experiments are often taken as confirmations of truth, not failures to falsify. And the question of whether an experiment is a falsification, or a confirmation, or indeed has any meaning at all, is not always simply determined. Interpreting experiments is hard and troublesome work.

On top of that, some experiments serve other purposes. Experiments can be used for educational purposes; or as models of natural phenomena; or they can be used to improve technology for further experimentation; or, indeed, to improve technology in general.