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General characteristics of the contemporary English language system

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General characteristics of the contemporary English language system

General characteristics of the contemporary English language system - раздел Образование, THEORETICAL GRAMMAR All Languages Are Classified On The Ground Of Two Basic Princ...

All languages are classified on the ground of two basic principles – of their genealogy (origin and relations) and of their typology (structure).

Typological classification is one which is based on the distinguishing similarities and differences of the structures of languages independently on their affinity. It is also called Morphological classification as it studies forms, structures and ‘building’ components of languages.

Typological classification was firstly worked out, grounded and proposed by the brothers August and Fririch Sleggel (XVII/XIX). They distinguished inflectional (флективные), which have inflections, and non-inflectional (нефлективные), which do not have inflections, languages. Besides, they distinguished synthetic (earlier) and analytical (later) languages (Drawing 1.4).

V.Gumboldt (XVII/XIX) reworked the Sleggels’ classification and distinguished four types of languages: insulating (изолирующие или корневые), agglutinative (агглюнативные), incorporated (инкорпорирующие) and inflectional (флективные).

Insulating languages do not have affixes and express grammatical meanings with adjoining of certain words to others with the help of Syntacategorematic (auxiliary) words. There is no difference between root and stem in such languages. Words do not change and consequently do not have any indices of their syntactic correspondence with other words. The main means of syntactic combination is adjoining. Sentence, thus, is a definite sequence of unchangeable and indivisible words-roots.

For instance:

Chinese, Vietnam, Tibetan, etc.

Chinese:

Ma – mother

Ma – hemp

Ma – horse

Ma – to scold at

Ma ma ma. Мама ругает коня.

Ma чи ма. Мама едет на коне.

Agglutinative (glutten (Latin) – glue, agglutino – to glue) languages are the ones in which grammatical meanings are expressed with special affixes – ‘stickers’.

For instance:

Turkish, Georgian, Japanese, etc.

Turkish:

Lar – Plural form

Da – Prepositional (предложный) case

Masa – a table

Baba – a father

Masada – on the table

Masalar – tables

Masalarda – on the tables

Babada – on the father

Babalar – fathers

Babalarda – on the fathers

Incorporated (incorporatio (Latin) – including, joining to a set) or polysynthetic (polys (Greek) – a lot of, synthesis – joining up, association, formation) languages are those in which different parts of an utterance present amorphous words-stems (words-roots) which are incorporated into united complexes number of which, in their turn, are formed with auxiliary elements.

For instance:

Majority of the languages of South America, чукотский

Чукотский:

га – ма – a kind of the case which shows a sign with whom or with what

гапojгeма – with a spear

гаторпojгeма – with a new spear

гатанпojгeма – with a good spear

гатанпелwентепоjгeма – with a good metal spear

Inflectional languages express their grammatical meanings mainly with inflexions.

They are divided into synthetic and analytical.

Grammatical relations of words are expressed by the forms of these very words. A meaningful word alters and presents its new forms to express grammar relations For example: Russian, Ukrainian

A meaningful word is not able to alter. For that other words are used – auxiliaries. They help to express grammar relations or combine words in phrases or sentences. Peculiarity: auxiliary element (auxiliary verb) does not have a lexical meaning; notional verb does have that. For example: English, French

Drawing 1.4. Division of languages as for the systems of changes of their grammar forms

(synthetic languages and analytical)

Old English used to be a synthetic language and used to have its own system of inflections. Though with the time (foreign intrusions, wars, cultural ties) it altered and transformed into an analytical one. Nevertheless in English some synthetic forms are still used (look for example of the 2^nd characteristic of English brought under).

Characteristics of English:

Auxiliaries. Auxiliary verb does not have a lexical meaning; notional verb has that.

For instance:

She has already been preparing for three hours (both auxiliaries – has been – do not have lexical meanings) = Она готовится уже три часа.

She has a nice kid (has is not an auxiliary but a notional verb here, so it has a lexical meaning to obtain, to posses sth) = Она имеет милого ребенка = У нее есть милый ребенок.

Scarcity of flexible forms.

For instance alterations:

a) of the Noun (Singular and Plural forms): a chair (Sng) – chairs (Pl);

b) of the Verb (in accordance with Tense, Person, Number): we approach (Present Simple, Plural), he approaches (Present Simple, Third Person Singular), we, he, etc. approached (Past Simple);

c) of the Adjective (Degrees of Comparison): pretty (Neutral) – prettier (Comparative) – the prettiest (Superlative).

Homonymy (which refers to the phenomenon of similar spelling or pronunciation of words that have different lexical meanings).

For instance, homonymy of Grammar affixes:

Boys study (Plural, Nominative Case) – boy’s book (Singular, Possessive Case) – boys’ book (Plural, Possessive Case).

Absence of Grammatical Agreement of a noun and an adjective that attributes the noun.

For instance:

A big boy (he) girl (she) apple (it). Compare with Russian большой мальчик, большая девочка, большое яблоко.

Use of the Noun in the Common Case as a prepositional attribute.

For instance:

Table (noun) + lamp (noun) = table lamp (table is a prepositional attribute).

Formal double complete predicative center (when a verb obviously has a personal form).

For instance:

Compare: It is dark. and Темно.

Wide use of the assistant words.

For instance:

The Noun: one, they, that, this, those, etc.

The Verb: do, get, etc.

Wide development of secondary predicative combinations.

For instance:

Complex Object: They expected me to behave as they wanted but I was not going to allow them to manipulate me.

Direct word order.

For instance:

I have already been there.

Yesterday we gave him a book.

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THEORETICAL GRAMMAR

I Introductory to the theoretical study of the English Language Grammar... The Subject of Theoretical... Kinds of Theoretical Grammar...

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The Subject of Theoretical Grammar
Theoretical Grammaris a section of linguistics that studies grammar system of language. Grammar system of language refers to the whole complex of conformitie

Kinds of Theoretical Grammar
To explain and interpreter a phenomenon means to reveal and understand its nature. Kinds of Theoretical Grammar are defined by different approaches to the problem of How to interpret lang

Theoretical approaches to language data interpretation
Type of relations (drawing 1.1) Essence Approach A language sign – other language signs (1 – 2) Relations

Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations.
As for the structure Theoretical Grammar can be stipulated by syntagmatic (distributive) or paradigmatic (transformative) relations.

Grammatical categories.
To the main notions in the study of Theoretical Grammar the following ones are included: grammatical category; grammatical form and grammatical meaning. Grammatical Meaning d

The notions of the Word and the Morpheme
The word morphology is based on the two Greek words morpheme and logos. Morpheme means form. Logos was regarded as one of

Kinds of Morphemes
Kinds of Morphemes Root Affix (prefix, suffix) Inflective

Principles of subdivision of parts of speech
The whole structure of Language is divided into lexical-grammatical classes or parts of speech. Different linguistic schools ground different ways of lexical-grammatical cl

The essence of the Theory of Three Ranks
Ranks Word Primary Secondary Tertiary Essence The main word in an expre

Classification of parts of speech
The biggest subdivision of parts of speech are the ones of Categorematic words (знаменательные слова) and Syntacategorematic/syntactic words (служебные слова). The

Theory of the field structure of the word.
Theory of the Morphological Field: In a group of words there are ones which have all indications (signs) of a definite morphological part of speech; there are also words whic

General characteristics of the Noun. Its Grammatical Meaning, syntactic functions and the system of word-formation.
Characteristics of the Noun: 1. The Noun refers to the Categorematic parts of speech: it has lexical meaning and can take a definite syntactic position and serve

The first classification of nouns
Nouns Types Proper Common Collective Meanings Na

The second classification of nouns
Nouns Types Common Proper Meanings Name any object, thing, phenomeno

The problem of the Gender of the English Noun.
The gender of an object, thing or phenomenon is expressed with lexical, but not grammatical, means (boy – girl, man – woman, bull – caw; he-goat – she-goat; star – it; window – it, ship – it/she, e

The category of the Number.
1. The category of the Number is based on the opposition of singularity and plurality. For example: parent – parents, tree –trees, man –men, life – l

The category of Case.
The Case refers to the relations of an object/thing/phenomenon (which is denoted by a noun) to other objects, actions and signs, on the one hand, and

Comparing Grammatical Forms of the cases of the Latin and English Noun
Latin English Amicus (friend); the stem is amico-. The noun of the second declension Friend

Correspondence of the syntactic function and the case of the Noun
Case Syntactic Function Example Nominative Subject A human lives. A table is ma

The principle of Substitution in stipulating the three English Cases
Case Substitution by Personal Pronoun Example Using a noun Substituted by a personal prono

Functions and significance of the Article.
Functionally there are two forms of the Article – definite and indefinite. The forms are not changed. Though they have definite phonetic versions/the versions in pronunciation (drawing 4.1):

Interpretation of the status of the English Article
There are two general approaches to the grammatical morphological status of the Article

Three Morphological Forms of the Noun in the Category of the Article
Morphological Form Grammatical Meaning Its versions in Singular Plural Zero form

The problem of the number of articles (how many morphological forms the Article can be presented in)
There are two approaches (traditional Grammar and contemporary approach): 1) there are two articles in English (drawing 4.1): definite and indefinite (the Category of Article is based on t

Functions and significance of the Article
There are three general functions of the Article: morphological, syntactic and semantic. 1). Morphological function of the Article. Article is the main formal material morp

Grammatical Meaning of the Verb
The Verb refers to the Categorematic parts of speech: it has lexical meaning and can take a definite syntactic position and serve some functions of a member of a sentence.

Word-formative and word-changing systems of the Verb
Word-changing system of the Verb is richer in comparison with other parts of speech. There are two main means of word-changing of the Verb

Scheme of Morphological Classification of Verbs
Verbs Regular Irregular Characteristics The stem of a verb + the suffix –ed

Semantic Classification
There are three main subclassifications that are based on the Principle of Meaning, both Lexical and Grammatical (tab. 5.2). Table 5.2 Scheme of the 1

Scheme of Syntactic Classification of Verbs
Verbs Transitive (intentional) Intransitive (unintentional) Characteristics Deman

I Categories of the Finite Verbs
The Voice (Active, Passive): expresses relations of an action, its agent and object (an agent does an action (the Active Voice); an action is done over the agent or at the objec

Terms that are used to name Forms of the Verb that do not make agree with Persons
Names Assessment in English in Russian Nominal именные

The General Paradigm of the Non-Finite Forms of the Verb
Form (eat) Infinitive -ing (Participle I and Gerund: morphologically are the same) Participle II

Functions and Significance of the Non-Finite Forms
As for the morphological form there is a subdivision. They are said to be Simple Non-Finite forms and Analytical Non-Finite Forms. Two morphological forms of the Non-F

The problem of the definition of Word-combination
Word-combination can be called: 1) A phrase; 2) A word cluster / a cluster of words; 3) A word group / a group of words. Word-combination and

Classification of Word-combinations
General Classification. All word-combinations (WC) can be divided into two general groups on the ground of: 4) Principle of Form (inner structure, grammatical morphological r

Classification of Word-combinations grounded on the Principle of its Inner Structure
Word-combinations I Nuclear II Nuclear-free 1.1. Regressive 1.2. Progressive 2.1. In

Examples of types of word-combinations
№ Types of Word-combination (WC) Examples Nuclear regressive 1 Adverbial W

Main characteristics of the Sentence, its notion, models of the Sentence.
Main characteristics of the Sentence are the following: Syntactic autonomy (the absence of grammatical indices of being included into a bigger structure: in co

General Structure of the Simple Sentence
Simple Sentence Two-member One-member Complete Incomplete

Correspondence of Semantic Roles and their syntactic realisation
Semantic Role (reference to Reality) Meaning Syntactic correspondence (Linguistic expression of events of Reality)

PRACTICE I
Task 1: join the given language elements thus to form sуntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between or among them. Has been cleaning, meaning, an, has been peeled, bea

TEST I (S)
The task:match an item from the left column with its explanation given in the right one. The Subject of Theoretical Grammar

Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. Grammar categories
Task 1: join the given language elements thus to form syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between or among them. Has been cleaning, meaning, an, has