THE NUMERAL - раздел Иностранные языки, Some General Remarks § 130. The Numeral As A Part Of Speech Is Characterized By
1) Its Le...
§ 130. The numeral as a part of speech is characterized by
1) its lexico-grammatical meaning of 'number',
2) the category of numerical qualification represented in opposemes like seven — seventh, nine — ninth,
3) its unilateral combinability with nouns (three children, the third child),
4) such typical stem-building suffixes as -teen, -ty,
5) its functioning as an attribute, less frequently as some other part of the sentence.
§ 131. The lexico-grammatical meaning of 'number' is not to be confused with the grammatical meaning of 'number'.
a) The former is the generalization of a multitude of lexi cal meanings of individual numerals (five, ten, fifty-seven, etc.). The latter is the generalization of only two grammati cal meanings: "singular" and "plural".
b) The plural number, as in boys, shows indefinite plural ity, whereas the meanings of numerals, as in twenty, forty are definite plurality.
c) Like any grammatical meaning the "plural" of nouns is relative, dependent and indirect (§ 10). The lexical "plural" of a numeral like eight is not relative, being as much corre lated with the "singular" of one as with the "plural" of seven, or nine, or eighty. The "plural" of eight is independent inas- njuch as it is the lexical meaning of an independent word. Its reflection of reality is direct as that of any lexical mean ing
Р 92
1 Грамматика русскою языка АН СССР, ч 1, М.— Л , 1953.
§ 132. Numerals are usually divided into two groups — cardinal numerals (one, five, twenty) and ordinal numerals (first fifth, twentieth). The former denote some numerical quantity, the latter — some numerical order.
The difference between these groups is sometimes exaggerated to such an extent that they are treated as belonging to different parts of speech. For instance, A. I. Smirnitsky is of the opinion that only cardinal numerals form a separate part of speech, whereas ordinal numerals are adjectives 1.
Language facts do not support such views.
1 Each cardinal numeral has a corresponding ordinal one. Cf. seven — seienth, thirty — thirtieth, eighty-four — eighty-fourth, etc.
2. Both cardinals and ordinals qualify substances quan titatively, as distinct from adjectives whose qualification is qualitative.
3. Cardinals often denote numerical order like ordinals. Cf. lesson fice = Иге fifth lesson.
4. Only numerals have the suffix -th. Nouns denoting number (gross score, etc.) cannot be associated with it. Formations of the type *grossth, *scoieth are impossible.
5. If -th were regarded as a stem-building suffix, it would be the only suffjx of this kind in the English language em bracing all the words of a part of speech (in our case — numer als) minus three (one, two, three).
6. The relation between ten and tenth resembles the rela tion between boy and boy's. As words of the boy's type are mostly used in the function of attributes, they might also be declared adjectives.
§ 133. In our opinion, the pair ten — tenth forms an oppo-seme of the grammatical category of numerical qualification.
The lexical meaning of the two words expressed by the lexical morpheme ten- is the same. They are opposed only grammatically by the opposition of the zero morpheme in ten and the -th morpheme in tenth. This opposition is as regular as that of the zero morpheme of the singular and the -(e)s morpheme of the-plural. Even more so, in fact, because there are fewer exceptions. The meaning of the zero morpheme is that of 'numerical quantity' and the meaning of the morpheme -th is that of 'numerical order'. Like every grammatical
1 Op. cit., p. 163.
meaning the meaning of "numerical order" is relative(always correlated with the meaning of 'numerical quantity') and dependenton the lexical meaning of the word, i e. the suffix -th does not express "numerical order" in general, but the order of the number named by the lexical part of the word.
In the opposemes one — first, two — second, three — third the meaning of numerical qualification is expressed by means of suppletivity and sound interchange.
The words /mlf, quarter, zero, nought, gross, score, etc. which have no ordinal opposites, but possess plural opposites are nouns, not numerals.
§ 134. The combmability of numerals is rather limited. As a rule, they form combinations with nouns Numerals usually precede the nouns they modify, but when a cardinal denotes numerical order it follows the noun. Numerals are, naturally, associated with countable nouns. In cases like the first love, the first snow instances of the phenomena are meant. The definite article in combinations like the second dance is easily accounted for, as the numeral singles out the object or event by indicating its position in a series.
Numerals are, as a rule, not modified by other words. This negative combinability is also a characteristic feature of the part of speech.
§ 135. As to their stem structure English numerals fall into
a) simple or root numerals, such as one, two, three (up to twelve),
b) derivative numerals formed with the help of the suf fixes -teen (from thirteen to nineteen), -ty (from twenty to ninety),
c) compound numerals (from twenty-one to ninety-nine) and
d) composite numerals, such as nine hundred and three. It is owing to the remarkable way of forming composite
numerals that an unlimited multitude of numbers can be named with the help of a limited number of words.
It has been pointed out J that numerals have a peculiar manner of building up compound and composite stems not observed in any other part of speech.
When a numeral of a lower rank follows a higher numeral their numbers are added, as in eighty-one - eighty -f one.
1 See А. И. С м и р н и ц к и и, op. cit., p. 165.
If the order is reverse, the numbers are multiplied E. g. five hundred ~ jive X hundred. In two hundred and nine multiplication and addition are combined.
§ 136. Numerals are easily substantivized, acquiring noun features.
Let us by way of illustration take the following sentence from a school text-book in arithmetic: "In order to add two numbers add the units of one number to the units of the other, the tens to the tens, the hundreds to the hundreds, etc." Here the numerals tens, hundreds have many features in common , with the noun units. They have the lexico-grammatical meaning of 'substance', the 'plural', suffix -s; they have left-hand connections with articles, prepositions; they are used in the functions of objects. Other instances of the substantivization of numerals are: Arrival of Moscow eleven. (The Worker). Two can play at that game. We are seven. Form fours!
§ 137. The analysis of numeral grammemes in speech presents a picture largely similar to that displayed by adjectival grammemes. The frequency of their occurrence in the analyzed modern literary texts is as follows:
cardinal grammemes — 84 per cent
ordinal grammemes — 16 per cent,
the unmarked members of the opposeme as less specific (here as elsewhere) constituting the bulk of numerals used in speech flow.
Below are combinability patterns of numeral grammemes arranged in tabular form.
Pattern
Cardinal gram me me
Ordinal gram me me
(per cent)
(per cent)
art. + num. -f- noun
noun -f- prepos. -f num. link-verb + num.
other models (page ten, one of them, etc.)
§ 138. English and Russian numerals are similar as to their lexico-grammatical meanings, ways of stem-building, combinability and syntactical functions, but they differ greatly as regards their grammatical categories.
1) Unlike their English counterparts, Russian numerals possess the categories of gender (пятый — пятая — пяп ое) case (четыре — четырех — четырем, etc.) and number (пер вый — первые).
2) There is a great difference between ordinal and cardi nal numerals in Russian as far as their categories are con cerned. Ordinal numerals resemble adjectives not only in having the categories of number, gender and case, but in the forms of the grammatical morphemes as well.
Cf. пятый — красный пятого — красного пятому — пятая — красная пятые — красные красному
Cardinal numerals do not possess the categories of number and gender (with the exception of один, два). The case inflections are also different.
Cf. десять — десяти — десятью знать — знати — знатью
It is no wonder, therefore, that some linguists separate cardinal and ordinal numerals in Russian and regard the latter as adjectives. But this is certainly no reason why the same should be done in English (§ 132) where conditions are quite different.
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THE NUMERAL
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SOME GENERAL REMARKS
§ 1. In this book the phoneme, the morpheme, the word,and the sentenceare regarded as the basic units of language and speech. The definitions of these units have n
INTRODUCTION
§ 6. There exist many definitions of the. term word and none of them is generally accepted. But in the majority of cases pedple actually experience no difficulty in separating one word from
THE STRUCTURE OF WORDS
§ 7. One of the main properties of a word is its double nature. It is material because it can he heard or seen, and it is immaterial or ideal as far as its meaning is concerned. We shall regard the
THE CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS
§ 19. A morpheme usually has more than one meaning. This is the case, for instance, with both the lexical and the grammatical morpheme in the word runs. The morpheme run- has the following m
THE NOUN
§ 64. As follows from our previous discussion of the parts of speech in English, the noun may be defined as a part of speech characterized by the following features:
1. The lexico-grammati
The Category of Number
§ 71. The category of number of Engl ish nouns is the system of opposemes (such as girl — girls, foot — feet, etc.) showing whether the noun stands for оде object or more than
Noun Grammemes in Speech
§ 87. An English noun lexeme may contain four words at most (boy, boys, boy's, boys'). Each of these words, as we know (§ 19), represents not only the lexeme, but a certain grammeme as well.
THE ADJECTIVE
§ 101. Adjectives are a part of speech characterized by the following typical features:
1. The lexico-grammatical meaning of 'attributes (of substances)'. It should be understood that
Adjective Grammemes in Speech
§ 110. An English adjective lexeme may contain three words at most (strong — stronger — strongest) representing three grammemes. The fourth grammeme contains words with the oblique me
THE ADVERB
§ 116. The adverb is a part of speech characterized by the following features: *
1. The lexico-grammatical meaning of "qualitative, quan titative or circumstantial characteri
PRONOUNS
, § 139. It has been shown above that words fall into classes known as parts of speech in accordance with their lexico-grammatical meanings, morphological categories, typical stem-building element
Хаймович и др
But what is more important, pronouns can be substituted «not only for nouns, but for othe
Generalizing Pronouns
§ 178. Here belong such pronouns as all, both, each, either, every and its compounds (everyone, everybody, everything, everywhere) which give a generalizing indication of persons, th
THE VERB
§ 187. Analysing the verb in Modern Russian, V. V. Vi-nogradov characterizes it as "the most complex and capacious part of speech" J. Likewise, A. I. Smirnitsky 2 st
The Category of Voice
§ 203. The category of voice is the system of two-member opposemes (loves — is loved, loving — being loved, to love — to be loved, has loved — has, been loved, et
The Category of Aspect
§ 218. The category of aspect is a system of two-member opposemes such as works — is working, has worked — has been working, to work — to be working showing the characte
The Indicative Mood
§ 229. The indicative mood is the basic mood of the verb. Morphologically it is the most developed system including all the categories of the verb.
Semantically it is a fact mood. It serve
The Subjunctive Mood
§ 239. Probably the only thing linguists are unanimous about with regard to the subjunctive mood is that it represents an action as a 'non-fact', as something imaginary,
1
The Imperative Mood
§ 247. The imperative mood represents an action as a command, urging, request, exhortation addressed to one's interlocutor^). It is a direct expression of one's will. Therefore it is much more 's
Verb Grammemes in Speech
§ 251. When used in speech a word has but one of its lexical meanings and all of its grammatical meanings (see § 21). Thus in the sentence He writes to me every week, the verb writes
Indicative Mood Grammemes
The Present, Non-Continuous, Non-Perfect
§ 253. As a part of the verb system it may be said to present an action in the present (present tense) unspecified as to its character (non-contin
Voice Grammemes
§ 288. In the' system of the English language the active (non-marked) and the passive (marked) members of the voice opposeme are equal in rank, mutually complementing each other. This is not the ca
Subjunctive Mood Grammemes in Speech
§ 293. As we know, there is not a single subjunctive mood grammeme which has no homonyms in the indicative or in the imperative mood (or both). The discrimination of homo-nymous grammemes rests on
Imperative Mood Grammemes in Speech
§ 302. In most cases they serve to present an order, command, exhortation, request, etc. as a direct expression of the speaker's will.
In certain surroundings, however, mostly in
The Gerund
§ 321. The gerund is a verbid characterized by the following features:
1. Its dual lexico-grammatical meaning of an action partially viewed as a substance.
2. The categories
THE RESPONSE WORDS
§ 334. The response-words yes and no are characterized as a separate class by
a) their meaning of 'response statement',
b) their negative combinability,
c)
THE INTERJECTION
§ 337. The interjection is a part of speech characterized by the following features.
1. It expresses "emotions or will without naming them.
2. It has no grammatical categorie
THE PREPOSITION
§ 342. The preposition is a part of speech characterized by the following features:
Kits lexico-grammatical meaning of 'relations (of substances)'.
2. Its bilateral combinability
THE CONJUNCTION
§ 353. The conjunction is a part of speech characterized by the following features.
1. Its lexico-grammatical meaning of 'relations between substances, actions, properties, situations,
THE ARTICLE
§ 364. The two words a(n), the form a separate group or class characterized by
a) the lexico-grammatical meaning of '(in)definiteness', •b) the right-hand combinability with nouns,
THE PARTICLE
§ 372. The particle as a part of speech is characterized by the following features:
1. Its lexico-grammatical meaning of 'emphatic specifi cation'.
2. Its unilateral combina,
INTRODUCTION
§ 378. The basic unit of syntax is the sentence.There exist many definitions of the sentence, but none of them is generally accepted 1. But in the majority of cas
L/j8 Хаймсшич и
tences when the predicate verb contains no morphological word-morphemes.
§ 392. A unit of a higher level, as we know, contains units of the next lower level. A sentence contai
THE STRUCTURE OF A SENTENCE
§ 396. As defined (§ 3), when studying the structure of a unit, we find out its components, mostly units of the next lower level, their arrangement and their functions as parts of the unit.
A. As to Their Structure
§ 403. Sentences with only one predication are called simple sentences. Those with more than one predication have usually no general name 3. We shall call them
Combinations of Sentences
§ 416. The sentence is usually the limit of grammatical analysis. Conrbinations of sentences have never got adequate attention on the part of linguists. Yet the necessity of extending linguistic an
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
§ 420. Traditionally the subject and the predicate are regarded as the primary or principal parts of the sentence and the attribute, the object and the adverbial modifier — as the secondary parts
The Predicate
§ 430. The predicate is the member of a predication con taining the mood and tense (or only mood) components of predicativity. "
E. g. This dictionary employs a pronunciat
G) Adverbials of attending circumstances
He sank down in his chair, resting his chin in his hand. (Dreiser). -
§456. Qualitative and quantitative adverbial complements are more closely connected with their headword
Attributes
§ 459. Attributes are secondary parts of the sentence serving to modify nouns or noun-equivalents in whatever functions they are used in the sentence.
In simple sentences attributes can
Extensions
§ 467. Extensions are adjuncts of adjectives, adverbs and adlinks in a sentence. They differ from complements and attributes in being usually modifiers of modifiers, or ter-tiaries,
Connectives
§ 469. Connectives are linking-words considered as a secondary part of the sentence. They are mostly prepositions and conjunctions.
She played and sang to him. (London).
C
Го-Specifiers
§ 471. The peculiar combinability and functions of particles distinguish them from all other words in the sentence. They .-are not adjuncts of definite parts of speech like complements, .attributes
Parenthetical Elements
§ 473. Parenthetical elements are peculiar parts of the sentence.
a) They are characterized by negative combinability with the other words of the sentence.
b) They are, as it
II. The Position of the Object
a) The Place of the Direct Object
§ 479. The direct object is usually placed after the verb unless the indirect object precedes it.
He offered me his help.
However
THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE
§ 492. Composite sentences, as we know (§ 403), divide into compound and complex sentences. The difference between them is not only in the relations of coordination or subordination, as usually st
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE
§ 496. The clauses of compound sentences are of equal rank, but usually the clause preceding the conjunction is regarded as the initial clause to which the other clause is related. These relations
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
§ 498. The principal clauses of complex sentences are usually not classified, though their meanings are not neutral with regard to the meanings of the subordinate clauses.
Cf. He will c
Complement Clauses
a) Predicative Clauses
§ 509. The sentence The question is where he can be found consists of the principal clause the question is and the predicative clause where he can
Attribute Clauses
§ 518. Attributive clauses are postpositive adjuncts of nouns. They are commonly divided into relative and a'pposi-tiveclauses. Relative clauses are introduced by pronouns (or asyn
Extension Clauses
§ 520. Extension clauses are postpositive adjuncts of adjectives, adverbs and adlinks.
E. g. It is indeed doubtful how he had become aware that
Ro
Parenthetical Clauses
§ 521. Most authors who do not regard parenthetical elements as parts of the sentence treat It is past ten, I think as a simple sentence 1. We do not find this view convin
COMPOUND-COMPLEX AND COMPLEX-COMPOUND SENTENCES
§ 523. Sometimes subordination and coordination may be combined within one sentence, in which case we may have compound-complex and complex-compound sentences.
1 See M. Ganshma,
DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
§ 524. Among the composite sentences of English and other languages we find a peculiar type differing from the rest.
Cf. He said, "/ love you". (Greene). ,
CONCLUSION
§ 530. We have made a survey of the morphological and syntactical systems of Modern English, resorting, where appropriate, to comparison with Modern Russian. Now, by way of summing up, we shall ma
Теоретическая грамматика английского языка
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