CONCLUSION - раздел Иностранные языки, Some General Remarks § 530. We Have Made A Survey Of The Morphological And Syntactical Systems Of ...
§ 530. We have made a survey of the morphological and syntactical systems of Modern English, resorting, where appropriate, to comparison with Modern Russian. Now, by way of summing up, we shall make an attempt to point out those
basic features which make the grammatical structure of Modern English distinguishable from that of Modern Russian.
§ 531. We shall naturally begin with the word. One of the most striking features of English words as compared with Russian words is the scarcity of positive grammatical morphemes. The number of grammatical suffixes, for instance, does not exceed 13. But even these are often homonymous as, for example, /-s/ /-z/ /-iz/ in the nouns fathers, father's, fathers' and the verb fathers. Prefixes are not used as grammatical morphemes at all. In Russian the number of suffixes and prefixes used as grammatical morphemes exceeds 70.
This scantiness of grammatical morphemes in English is productive of certain characteristic sequels:
a) The proportion of zero morphemes is much greater in English than in Russian. The 'singular number, common case' grammeme in English, for instance, is (with the excep tion of a few 'foreign' nouns) characterized by a zero morpheme* whereas in Russian all case and number grammemes may have positive grammatical morphemes. .Similarly, the verb gram meme (7, we, you, they) go, come, live, stand, etc. has a zero morpheme, whereas in Russian similar grammemes have a number of positive morphemes. The 'positive degree' gram meme of adjectives has a zero morpheme in English and pos itive morphemes in Russian.
b) Grammatical combinability plays an incomparably smaller role in English than in Russian.
Cf. белая стена, белый потолок, белых потолков; мы, пишем, вы пишете, они пишут.
c) The number of words with oblique grammatical meanings is much greater in English than in Russian. For instance, there are but a few indeclinable nouns with oblique case mean ings in Russian (до метро, на такси), whereas in English there are more nouns with oblique than with actual case meanings.
d) Owing to the absence of positive case inflexions in about 98% of nouns in speech, the relations of nouns, the most numerous class of words, to other words in the sentence is not expressed by their forms, as in Russian.
§ 532. The abundant use of grammatical word-morphemes compensates the English verb system for the scarcity of inflexions. This is another striking feature of English, as com-
pared with Russian where grammatical word-morphemes are used only in 'future non-perfective' grammeines (буду/ будешь, etc./писать) and 'subjunctive mood' grammemes (писал бы).
Note. particle.
In Russian grammar books бы is called a
§ 533. In the other parts of speech the compensation for the scarcity of inflexions is the extensive use of semi-notional words and of the relative position of words as means,of expressing the connections of words in speech. Prepositions are of greater importance than in Russian as indicators of the relations of nouns (and noun-equivalents) to other words in the sentence. Articles, semi-notional possessive pronouns, prepositions often mark the beginning of a string of words related to a certain noun.
Cf. the we—know—that—he—knows—that—she—knows development; of very great and ever Increasing importance.
§ 534. Russian is richer than English not only in grammatical morphemes but in lexico-grammatical morphemes (stem-building elements) as well. As a result there are many more homonyms in English than in Russian.
English has developed a way of lexeme-building without stem-building elements (conversion) which is much less used in Russian. The abundance of words related by conversion is another striking feature of the English language.
In the verb system the lexico-grammatical word-morphemes compensate for the scarcity of lexico-grammatical morphemes. Such composite verbs as get up, ring up, find out, take in, etc. are a characteristic feature of English not found in Russian.
In speech the prop-word one helps to indicate an adjective (or adjective equivalent) which is not followed by a noun much in the same way as an article (or another determiner) indicates a noun.
.§ 535. The syntactical system of a language is, as a rule, closely connected with its morphological system. The structure of the sentence and the structure of the word are interdependent.
In Russian the nominative case of a noun and its grammatical combinability with a finite verb are usually sure signs of the subject. So the position of the subject is mostly a matter of secondary importance from the grammatical point of view. Not so in English The noun has no 'subject case'. Its grammatical combinability with a finite verb is limited and does not, very often, exclude other nouns in the sentence.
(Cf. Встречает Пеп.ра Иван; * meets Peter John.) Hence the rigid word-older in an English sentence.
§ 536. The Russian verb clearly expresses the indicative, imperative and subjunctive moods. So the relation to reality (the most essential component of predicativity) is obvious whether there is a subject or the 'person' is expressed by the verb itself. Cf (ты) пиши, (ты) пишешь. Such sentences can do without subjects.
In English write can be the form of an infinitive or of any mood. So the subject is not optional. The absence of a subject before write is usually a signal of the imperative mood. If the meanings of the other moods are to be expressed, the subject is unavoidable. This is one of the reasons why the two-member sentence is the norm in English, whereas in Russian one-member sentences of the type напишу, едут, вспомнил, светает, etc. are also very common.
§ 537. The role of grammatical word-morphemes is even greater in English syntax than in morphology.
a) In the morphological system only some categories of the verb and the degrees of comparison are expressed with the help of grammatical word-morphemes, whereas no category of the sentence is expressed without grammatical word-morphemes in English.
b) Besides the morphological word-morphemes the sen tence makes use of special syntactical word-morphemes.
Russian has no syntactical word-morphemes and but a small number of morphological word-morphemes. This is the reason why the structural and the notional (parts of the) subject and predicate are mostly not separated, as they are in English.
This is one of the most important features distinguishing the analytical structure of the English sentence from the synthetic structure of the Russian sentence.
§ 538. Among other peculiarities distinguishing the English sentence from the Russian, one has to mention the complexes forming secondary predications. They are convenient substitutes for subordinate clauses.
The distinction English makes between primary and secondary predications, i. e. predications with or without structural meanings, is also connected with the analytical structure of the English sentence.
§ 539. It is owing to most of the features described above that Modern English is spoken of as an analytical language.
Борис Семенович. Хаймович, Беатриса Иосифовна Роговская
От авторов... Some General Remarks... Morphology...
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CONCLUSION
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SOME GENERAL REMARKS
§ 1. In this book the phoneme, the morpheme, the word,and the sentenceare regarded as the basic units of language and speech. The definitions of these units have n
INTRODUCTION
§ 6. There exist many definitions of the. term word and none of them is generally accepted. But in the majority of cases pedple actually experience no difficulty in separating one word from
THE STRUCTURE OF WORDS
§ 7. One of the main properties of a word is its double nature. It is material because it can he heard or seen, and it is immaterial or ideal as far as its meaning is concerned. We shall regard the
THE CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS
§ 19. A morpheme usually has more than one meaning. This is the case, for instance, with both the lexical and the grammatical morpheme in the word runs. The morpheme run- has the following m
THE NOUN
§ 64. As follows from our previous discussion of the parts of speech in English, the noun may be defined as a part of speech characterized by the following features:
1. The lexico-grammati
The Category of Number
§ 71. The category of number of Engl ish nouns is the system of opposemes (such as girl — girls, foot — feet, etc.) showing whether the noun stands for оде object or more than
Noun Grammemes in Speech
§ 87. An English noun lexeme may contain four words at most (boy, boys, boy's, boys'). Each of these words, as we know (§ 19), represents not only the lexeme, but a certain grammeme as well.
THE ADJECTIVE
§ 101. Adjectives are a part of speech characterized by the following typical features:
1. The lexico-grammatical meaning of 'attributes (of substances)'. It should be understood that
Adjective Grammemes in Speech
§ 110. An English adjective lexeme may contain three words at most (strong — stronger — strongest) representing three grammemes. The fourth grammeme contains words with the oblique me
THE ADVERB
§ 116. The adverb is a part of speech characterized by the following features: *
1. The lexico-grammatical meaning of "qualitative, quan titative or circumstantial characteri
THE NUMERAL
§ 130. The numeral as a part of speech is characterized by
1) its lexico-grammatical meaning of 'number',
2) the category of numerical qualification represented in opposemes l
PRONOUNS
, § 139. It has been shown above that words fall into classes known as parts of speech in accordance with their lexico-grammatical meanings, morphological categories, typical stem-building element
Хаймович и др
But what is more important, pronouns can be substituted «not only for nouns, but for othe
Generalizing Pronouns
§ 178. Here belong such pronouns as all, both, each, either, every and its compounds (everyone, everybody, everything, everywhere) which give a generalizing indication of persons, th
THE VERB
§ 187. Analysing the verb in Modern Russian, V. V. Vi-nogradov characterizes it as "the most complex and capacious part of speech" J. Likewise, A. I. Smirnitsky 2 st
The Category of Voice
§ 203. The category of voice is the system of two-member opposemes (loves — is loved, loving — being loved, to love — to be loved, has loved — has, been loved, et
The Category of Aspect
§ 218. The category of aspect is a system of two-member opposemes such as works — is working, has worked — has been working, to work — to be working showing the characte
The Indicative Mood
§ 229. The indicative mood is the basic mood of the verb. Morphologically it is the most developed system including all the categories of the verb.
Semantically it is a fact mood. It serve
The Subjunctive Mood
§ 239. Probably the only thing linguists are unanimous about with regard to the subjunctive mood is that it represents an action as a 'non-fact', as something imaginary,
1
The Imperative Mood
§ 247. The imperative mood represents an action as a command, urging, request, exhortation addressed to one's interlocutor^). It is a direct expression of one's will. Therefore it is much more 's
Verb Grammemes in Speech
§ 251. When used in speech a word has but one of its lexical meanings and all of its grammatical meanings (see § 21). Thus in the sentence He writes to me every week, the verb writes
Indicative Mood Grammemes
The Present, Non-Continuous, Non-Perfect
§ 253. As a part of the verb system it may be said to present an action in the present (present tense) unspecified as to its character (non-contin
Voice Grammemes
§ 288. In the' system of the English language the active (non-marked) and the passive (marked) members of the voice opposeme are equal in rank, mutually complementing each other. This is not the ca
Subjunctive Mood Grammemes in Speech
§ 293. As we know, there is not a single subjunctive mood grammeme which has no homonyms in the indicative or in the imperative mood (or both). The discrimination of homo-nymous grammemes rests on
Imperative Mood Grammemes in Speech
§ 302. In most cases they serve to present an order, command, exhortation, request, etc. as a direct expression of the speaker's will.
In certain surroundings, however, mostly in
The Gerund
§ 321. The gerund is a verbid characterized by the following features:
1. Its dual lexico-grammatical meaning of an action partially viewed as a substance.
2. The categories
THE RESPONSE WORDS
§ 334. The response-words yes and no are characterized as a separate class by
a) their meaning of 'response statement',
b) their negative combinability,
c)
THE INTERJECTION
§ 337. The interjection is a part of speech characterized by the following features.
1. It expresses "emotions or will without naming them.
2. It has no grammatical categorie
THE PREPOSITION
§ 342. The preposition is a part of speech characterized by the following features:
Kits lexico-grammatical meaning of 'relations (of substances)'.
2. Its bilateral combinability
THE CONJUNCTION
§ 353. The conjunction is a part of speech characterized by the following features.
1. Its lexico-grammatical meaning of 'relations between substances, actions, properties, situations,
THE ARTICLE
§ 364. The two words a(n), the form a separate group or class characterized by
a) the lexico-grammatical meaning of '(in)definiteness', •b) the right-hand combinability with nouns,
THE PARTICLE
§ 372. The particle as a part of speech is characterized by the following features:
1. Its lexico-grammatical meaning of 'emphatic specifi cation'.
2. Its unilateral combina,
INTRODUCTION
§ 378. The basic unit of syntax is the sentence.There exist many definitions of the sentence, but none of them is generally accepted 1. But in the majority of cas
L/j8 Хаймсшич и
tences when the predicate verb contains no morphological word-morphemes.
§ 392. A unit of a higher level, as we know, contains units of the next lower level. A sentence contai
THE STRUCTURE OF A SENTENCE
§ 396. As defined (§ 3), when studying the structure of a unit, we find out its components, mostly units of the next lower level, their arrangement and their functions as parts of the unit.
A. As to Their Structure
§ 403. Sentences with only one predication are called simple sentences. Those with more than one predication have usually no general name 3. We shall call them
Combinations of Sentences
§ 416. The sentence is usually the limit of grammatical analysis. Conrbinations of sentences have never got adequate attention on the part of linguists. Yet the necessity of extending linguistic an
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
§ 420. Traditionally the subject and the predicate are regarded as the primary or principal parts of the sentence and the attribute, the object and the adverbial modifier — as the secondary parts
The Predicate
§ 430. The predicate is the member of a predication con taining the mood and tense (or only mood) components of predicativity. "
E. g. This dictionary employs a pronunciat
G) Adverbials of attending circumstances
He sank down in his chair, resting his chin in his hand. (Dreiser). -
§456. Qualitative and quantitative adverbial complements are more closely connected with their headword
Attributes
§ 459. Attributes are secondary parts of the sentence serving to modify nouns or noun-equivalents in whatever functions they are used in the sentence.
In simple sentences attributes can
Extensions
§ 467. Extensions are adjuncts of adjectives, adverbs and adlinks in a sentence. They differ from complements and attributes in being usually modifiers of modifiers, or ter-tiaries,
Connectives
§ 469. Connectives are linking-words considered as a secondary part of the sentence. They are mostly prepositions and conjunctions.
She played and sang to him. (London).
C
Го-Specifiers
§ 471. The peculiar combinability and functions of particles distinguish them from all other words in the sentence. They .-are not adjuncts of definite parts of speech like complements, .attributes
Parenthetical Elements
§ 473. Parenthetical elements are peculiar parts of the sentence.
a) They are characterized by negative combinability with the other words of the sentence.
b) They are, as it
II. The Position of the Object
a) The Place of the Direct Object
§ 479. The direct object is usually placed after the verb unless the indirect object precedes it.
He offered me his help.
However
THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE
§ 492. Composite sentences, as we know (§ 403), divide into compound and complex sentences. The difference between them is not only in the relations of coordination or subordination, as usually st
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE
§ 496. The clauses of compound sentences are of equal rank, but usually the clause preceding the conjunction is regarded as the initial clause to which the other clause is related. These relations
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
§ 498. The principal clauses of complex sentences are usually not classified, though their meanings are not neutral with regard to the meanings of the subordinate clauses.
Cf. He will c
Complement Clauses
a) Predicative Clauses
§ 509. The sentence The question is where he can be found consists of the principal clause the question is and the predicative clause where he can
Attribute Clauses
§ 518. Attributive clauses are postpositive adjuncts of nouns. They are commonly divided into relative and a'pposi-tiveclauses. Relative clauses are introduced by pronouns (or asyn
Extension Clauses
§ 520. Extension clauses are postpositive adjuncts of adjectives, adverbs and adlinks.
E. g. It is indeed doubtful how he had become aware that
Ro
Parenthetical Clauses
§ 521. Most authors who do not regard parenthetical elements as parts of the sentence treat It is past ten, I think as a simple sentence 1. We do not find this view convin
COMPOUND-COMPLEX AND COMPLEX-COMPOUND SENTENCES
§ 523. Sometimes subordination and coordination may be combined within one sentence, in which case we may have compound-complex and complex-compound sentences.
1 See M. Ganshma,
DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
§ 524. Among the composite sentences of English and other languages we find a peculiar type differing from the rest.
Cf. He said, "/ love you". (Greene). ,
Теоретическая грамматика английского языка
(на английском языке)
Редактор Л. И, Кравцова Издательский редактор Л. А. Долгопятова
Технический редактор Т. Л. Гарина Корректоры Л. Т. Тихонова и
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