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THE STRUCTURE OF WORDS

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THE STRUCTURE OF WORDS

THE STRUCTURE OF WORDS - раздел Иностранные языки, Some General Remarks § 7. One Of The Main Properties Of A Word Is Its Double Nature. It Is Materia...

§ 7. One of the main properties of a word is its double nature. It is material because it can he heard or seen, and it is immaterial or ideal as far as its meaning is concerned. We shall regard the material aspects of the word (written and oral) as its forms ², and its meanings as its content³. When defining the word as "the smallest naming unit" (§ 1), we refer primarily to its content, whereas in pointing out the most characteristic features of words (§ 6) we deal chiefly with the form.

§ 8. The word books-can be broken up in two parts: book-and -s. The content of the first part can be rendered by the

¹L. Bloomfield has this to say on the subject: "In our school tra
dition we sometimes speak of forms like book, books or do, docs, did,
done as different forms of the same words. Of course, this is inaccurate,
since there are differences of form and meaning between the members of
these se,ts: the forms just cited are different linguistic forms and, accord
ingly, different words". (Language. N. Y., 1948, p. 178.)

²Many authors attribute also other meanings to the term form.'
See В. Н. Ж и г а д л о, И. П. И в а н о в а, Л. Л. И о ф и к. Сов
ременный английский язык. 1956, р. 9; Л. С. Бархударов,
Д. А. Ш т е л и н г, op. cit. 1965, р. 17.

³С. L. Ebeling writes: "The meaning of a word is its possibility
to point to certain things in reality (in the same way as the form of a '
word is its possibility to be recognized)". (Linguistic Units, 'S-Grav-
enhage, 1960, p. 12.)

See also the following statement:

"In spite of rather excenlric pronouncements on the part of some, no linguist has really ever doubted that he has to take note of both the physical shapes ('forms') and the purposes they serve ('meanings')." (W. Haas. On Defining Linguistic Units. Lnd., 1954, p. 54.)

Russian книг- and the meaning of the second part is 'plurality'. So each of the two parts of the word books has both form and content. Such meaningful parts of a word are called morphemes. If we break up the word books in some other way, e. g. boo-ks, the resulting parts will not be morphemes, since they have no meanings.

§9. There is an important difference between the morpheme book- and the word book besides that of a part and the whole. The word book contains the meaning of "singular number", which the morpheme does not. The meaning of "singularity" is acquired by the word book because there exists the word books with the morpheme of "plurality" -s. So the absence of -s in book is interpreted as "singular number". Thus, we may say that the word book contains the morpheme book-plus a zero morphemewith the meaning of "singular number".

Note. Zero refers only to the form of the morpheme. The morpheme -s having a positive form may be called a positive morpheme.

§ 10. The morphemes book- and -s differ essentially:

a) In their relations to reality and thought. Book- is
directlyassociated with some object of reality, eVen if it
does not name it as the word book does (cf. bookish). The
morpheme -s is connected with the world of reality only
indirectly,through the morpheme it is linked with. lri~com
bination with the morpheme book- it means "more than one
book". Together with the morpheme pot- it refers to "more
than one pot". But alone it does not remind us of the notion
"more than one" in the same way as, for instance, the morpheme
plural- does.

b) In their relations to the word of which they are part.
Book- is more independentthan -s. As we have seen, book-
makes a word with a zero morpheme added, -s cannot make a
word with a zero morpheme. It always dependson some pos
itive morpheme.

c) In their relations to similar morphemes in other words.
The meaning of -s is always relative.In the word books it
denotes "plurality", because books is opposed to book with the
zero morpheme of "singularity". In the word news -s has no
plural meaning because there is no "singular" opposite to
news. Or, to take another example, the morpheme -s in wants

shows the meaning of "present tense" in relation to the morpheme -ed of wanted, but it shows the meaning of "third person, singular" in relation to the-zero morpheme of want. Now we cannot say that book- has one meaning when contrasted with table- and^another meaning when contrasted with chair-.

The meanings of the morphemes -s, -ed, relative, dependent and only indirectly reflecting reality, are grammatical meanings of grammatical morphemes.

Morphemes of the book- type and their meanings are called lexical.

§ 11. Tfye lexical and grammatical morphemes of a word are linked together so closely that sometimes it seems impossible to sepa.ate them. The relation between foot and feet is similar to the relation between book and books. But how are we to separate the "plural" morpheme in feet from the lexical morpheme? In a general way we can say that everything distinguishing the form of feet from that of foot expresses "plurality". But the answer can be more elaborate. We may regard /f..t/ as a discontinuous form of the lexical morpheme, /-U-/ as the form of the grammatical morpheme of "singularity", and I-г.-1 as that of the morpheme of "plurality". Then /-и-1 and /-i:-/ are grammatical morphemes inserted into a lexical one, and we deal with internal inflection. We may also assume that the 'singular' meaning in foot is, as usual, not marked, i. e. we have there a zero morpheme. The word feet contains the lexical morpheme foot- and the grammatical morpheme of "plurality" whose form is /u ^> i:/, i. e. the change of the vowel /u/ to the vowel /i:/. Thus "plurality" is expressed by vowel change.

§ 12. It is not uncommon in English that the function of a grammatical morpheme is discharged by an apparent word. The lexical meanings of the words invite, invited and the combination shall invite (I invite you. LJnvited you. I shall invite you.) are the same. The main difference in content is the "present" meaning in invite, the "past" meaning in invited and the "future" meaning in shall invite. These meanings are grammatical. By comparing the relations of invite — invited and invite — shall invite we can see that the function of shall is similar to that of the grammatical morpheme -ed.

Thus, shall is a kind of contradiction. Formally, it is a word, since it has the looseness (§ 6) of a word (I shall come.

/ shall certainly come. Shall I come? I shall.). As to its content, it is not a word, but a grammatical morpheme:

a) Unlike a word, it has no lexical meaning in We sliall
arrive to-morrow.

b) The meaning,of -(e)d in arrived and that of shall in
shall arrive are homogeneous.

c) The meaning of shall is relative like that of grammatical
morphemes. Shall invite shows the "future" meaning when
it is opposed to invite with the "present" meaning. But when
it is contrasted with will invite, _v it shows the meaning of
"first person".

d) The meaning of shall is only indirectly connected with
reality, through the word it is linked with. It does not denote
"futurity" in general, but the futurity of the action denoted
by invite, arrive, etc.

Since shall has the properties of both a word and a grammatical morpheme, we shall call it a grammatical word-morpheme.

Let us now compare the two units: works and will work. They contain the same lexical morpheme work- and different grammatical morphemes -s and will. The grammatical morpheme -s is a bound morpheme: it is rigidly connected with the lexical morpheme. The grammatical morpheme will is a free morpheme or a word-morpheme: it is loosely connected with the lexical morpheme. Owing to the difference in the forms of the grammatical morphemes, there is a difference in the forms of the units works and will work. Works has the form of one word, will work that of a combination of words.

Units like works, with bound' grammatical morphemes, are called synthetic words. They are words both in form and in content.

Units like will work, with free grammatical morphemes, or grammatical word-morphemes, are called analytical words. They are words in content only. In form they are combinations of words.

Since the difference between synthetic and analytical words is a matter of form, not content, we may speak of synthetic and analytical forms. ^l

¹ See А. И. Смирницкий. Морфология английского языка. М., 1959; М. М. Г у х м а н. Глагольные аналитические конструкции, как особый тип сочетаний частичного и полного слова. («Вопросы грамматического строя», АН СССР, М., 1955); В. Н. Я р ц е в а. Об аналитических формах слова «Морфологическая структура слова в языках различных типов», АН СССР, М.—Л., 1963.

Analytical forms are much more characteristic of English than of Russian. Especially rich in analytical forms is the English verb where they greatly exceed the synthetic forms in number (see § 19).

Owing to the prevalence of analytical forms, English is usually spoken of as an analytical language, and Russian, Latin, Greek, in which synthetic forms prevail, as synthetic languages.

Note. This is but one of the distinctive features of the analytical structure of Modern English. As to the functions of grammatical word-morphemes in the structure of the English sentence, see Syntax.

§ 13. Besides lexical and grammatical morphemes there exist some intermediate types.

The first morphemes in the words de-part, far-give, and the second morphemes in the words fly-er, home-less resemble grammatical morphemes in their dependence on lexical morphemes. But they differ from grammatical morphemes in not being relative. True, one can say that in the pair merciful — merciless the morpheme -less is correlated with -ful, but in homeless, ,obless, etc. -less retains its meaning though it is not contrasted with -ful.

Like grammatical morphemes, de-, for-, -er, -less are attached only to certain classes of lexical morphemes. The morpheme -er, for instance, is usually attached to morphemes ikesing-, read-, speak- which are associated with the grammatical morphemes -s, -ing and the grammatical word-morphemes shall, will. But like lexical morphemes they determine the lexical meanings of words. Cf. part and depart, give and forgive. Besides, together with their lexical morphemes, de-, for-, -er, -less make units whose co-occurrence with grammatical morphemes is similar to that of simple lexical morphemes. Cf. home — homes, reader — readers; boy — boy's, reader — reader's; give — gives — giving — shall give, forgive — forgives — forgiving — shall forgive.

Later (§ 30) we shall speak of other properties that morphemes like de-, for-, -er, -less have in common with grammatical morphemes, on the one hand, and lexical morphemes, on the other.

Owing to their double or intermediate nature, we shall call them lexico grammatical morphemes.

§ 14. De-, for-, -er, -less are bound morphemes. English possesses also freelexico-grammatical morphemes, or lexico-grammatical word-morphemes.

Units of the type stand up, give in, find out resemble analytical words in each having the form of a combination of words and the content of a word. But there is an essential difference between shall give and give in. Shall does not introduce any lexical meaning, while in does. Shall give differs from give grammatically, while give in differs form give lexically. In this respect give in is similar to forgive. In resembles for- also in being associated with the class of lexical morphemes attaching the same set of grammatical morphemes: -s, -ing, shall, will, etc. Cf. gives in, forgives', giving in, forgiving', will give in, will forgive.

There is much similarity in origin and function between the second elements of stand up, break out ¹ and the so-called separable prefixes of the corresponding German verbs auf-•stenen — stand auf, ausbrechen — brack aus. All of them are lexico-grammatical morphemes. But in German they are only partly free, whereas in English they are wholly free morphemes, or word-morphemes.

The extensive use of lexico-grammatical word-morphemes is, as L. P. Smith puts it, "one of the most striking idiosyncrasies" ⁸ of English. It is an inalienable part of its analytical structure.

Units of the give in type containing lexico-grammatical word-morphemes will be treated here as compositewords.

§ 15. A word has at least one lexical morpheme. It may also have grammatical and lexico-grammatical morphemes. The lexical morpheme is regarded as the rootof the word, all the other bound morphemes as affixes: prefixes, suffixesand infixes.

Position is not the only difference between prefixes and suffixes in English. Suffixes play a much greater role in the grammatical structure of the language. First, they include grammatical morphemes besides lexico-grammatical ones, whereas prefixes are only lexico-grammatical. Secondly, the lexico-grammatical suffixes are more closely connected

¹They have been regarded as postpositions (B A Ilyish), adverbs
(A.I. Smirnitsky), postfixes (Y. A Zhluktenko)

²Quoted Jrom С. Б Берлизон Сочетания типа make up,
make for в современном английском языке. М.—Л., 1964, р. 3.

with grammatical morphemes than prefixes are. The addition of a suffix to the root mostly changes the set of grammatical morphemes attached, which is not typical of prefixes. Cf. teach and teacher, on the one hand, give and forgive, on the other. In this respect lexico-grammatical word-morphemes resemble prefixes, not suffixes. ^J

§ 16. Words without their grammatical morphemes(mostly suffixes, often called endings or inflections) are known as stems.A stem may consist of the root alone, as in the words boy, rooms, moved, or it may be more complicated, as in boyish, remove, improvement.

We may say that the stem boyish- has been derived from the stem boy- by adding the suffix -ish, remove- from move-by means of the prefix re-. In such cases we speak of stem-building by affixation.But affixation is not the only means of stem-building in English. The stem of the noun strength has been derived from the stem of the adjective strong not only by affixation (the suffix -th) but also by vowel change (/э/ > /e/).

§ 17. As already mentioned (§ 2), a word is not just a combination of morphemes. Apart from the naming power that unites all the morphemes of a word like revolutionary and turns them into a higher unit, they are also united by the word-stress which is an essential part of the structure of a word.

If we assume that the verb stem transport- has been derived from the noun stem transport-, we have to count stress changeamong the stem-building elements of the verb.

§ 18. In accordance with their structure the following four types of stems are usually distinguished:

1. Simple,containing only the root, as in day, dogs,
write, wanted, etc.

2. Derivative,containing affixes or other stem-building
elements, as in boyhood, rewrite, strength, speech (cf. speak)
transport, etc.

¹ See Ю. А. Жлуктенко. О так называемых «сложных глаголах» типа⁴ stand up в современном английском языке. («Вопросы языкознания», 1954, № 5).

3. Compound,containing two or more roots, as in white
wash, pickpocket, appletree, motor-car, brother-in-law, etc.

Note: The stems of blue-eyed, lion-hearted, etc. are both compound and derivative and are sometimes called compound derivatives'.

4. Composite,containing free lexico-grammatical word-
morphemes or otherwise having the form of a combination of
words, as in give up, two hundred and twenty-five, at last, in
spite of, etc.

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SOME GENERAL REMARKS
§ 1. In this book the phoneme, the morpheme, the word,and the sentenceare regarded as the basic units of language and speech. The definitions of these units have n

INTRODUCTION
§ 6. There exist many definitions of the. term word and none of them is generally accepted. But in the majority of cases pedple actually experience no difficulty in separating one word from

THE CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS
§ 19. A morpheme usually has more than one meaning. This is the case, for instance, with both the lexical and the grammatical morpheme in the word runs. The morpheme run- has the following m

THE NOUN
§ 64. As follows from our previous discussion of the parts of speech in English, the noun may be defined as a part of speech characterized by the following features: 1. The lexico-grammati

The Category of Number
§ 71. The category of number of Engl ish nouns is the system of opposemes (such as girl — girls, foot — feet, etc.) showing whether the noun stands for оде object or more than

Noun Grammemes in Speech
§ 87. An English noun lexeme may contain four words at most (boy, boys, boy's, boys'). Each of these words, as we know (§ 19), represents not only the lexeme, but a certain grammeme as well.

THE ADJECTIVE
§ 101. Adjectives are a part of speech characterized by the following typical features: 1. The lexico-grammatical meaning of 'attributes (of substances)'. It should be understood that

Adjective Grammemes in Speech
§ 110. An English adjective lexeme may contain three words at most (strong — stronger — strongest) representing three grammemes. The fourth grammeme contains words with the oblique me

THE ADVERB
§ 116. The adverb is a part of speech characterized by the following features: * 1. The lexico-grammatical meaning of "qualitative, quan titative or circumstantial characteri

THE NUMERAL
§ 130. The numeral as a part of speech is characterized by 1) its lexico-grammatical meaning of 'number', 2) the category of numerical qualification represented in opposemes l

PRONOUNS
, § 139. It has been shown above that words fall into classes known as parts of speech in accordance with their lexico-grammatical meanings, morphological categories, typical stem-building element

Хаймович и др
But what is more important, pronouns can be substituted «not only for nouns, but for othe

Generalizing Pronouns
§ 178. Here belong such pronouns as all, both, each, either, every and its compounds (everyone, everybody, everything, everywhere) which give a generalizing indication of persons, th

THE VERB
§ 187. Analysing the verb in Modern Russian, V. V. Vi-nogradov characterizes it as "the most complex and capacious part of speech" J. Likewise, A. I. Smirnitsky 2 st

The Category of Voice
§ 203. The category of voice is the system of two-member opposemes (loves — is loved, loving — being loved, to love — to be loved, has loved — has, been loved, et

The Category of Aspect
§ 218. The category of aspect is a system of two-member opposemes such as works — is working, has worked — has been working, to work — to be working showing the characte

The Indicative Mood
§ 229. The indicative mood is the basic mood of the verb. Morphologically it is the most developed system including all the categories of the verb. Semantically it is a fact mood. It serve

The Subjunctive Mood
§ 239. Probably the only thing linguists are unanimous about with regard to the subjunctive mood is that it represents an action as a 'non-fact', as something imaginary, 1

The Imperative Mood
§ 247. The imperative mood represents an action as a command, urging, request, exhortation addressed to one's interlocutor^). It is a direct expression of one's will. Therefore it is much more 's

Verb Grammemes in Speech
§ 251. When used in speech a word has but one of its lexical meanings and all of its grammatical meanings (see § 21). Thus in the sentence He writes to me every week, the verb writes

Indicative Mood Grammemes
The Present, Non-Continuous, Non-Perfect § 253. As a part of the verb system it may be said to present an action in the present (present tense) unspecified as to its character (non-contin

Voice Grammemes
§ 288. In the' system of the English language the active (non-marked) and the passive (marked) members of the voice opposeme are equal in rank, mutually complementing each other. This is not the ca

Subjunctive Mood Grammemes in Speech
§ 293. As we know, there is not a single subjunctive mood grammeme which has no homonyms in the indicative or in the imperative mood (or both). The discrimination of homo-nymous grammemes rests on

Imperative Mood Grammemes in Speech
§ 302. In most cases they serve to present an order, command, exhortation, request, etc. as a direct expression of the speaker's will. In certain surroundings, however, mostly in

The Gerund
§ 321. The gerund is a verbid characterized by the following features: 1. Its dual lexico-grammatical meaning of an action partially viewed as a substance. 2. The categories

THE RESPONSE WORDS
§ 334. The response-words yes and no are characterized as a separate class by a) their meaning of 'response statement', b) their negative combinability, c)

THE INTERJECTION
§ 337. The interjection is a part of speech characterized by the following features. 1. It expresses "emotions or will without naming them. 2. It has no grammatical categorie

THE PREPOSITION
§ 342. The preposition is a part of speech characterized by the following features: Kits lexico-grammatical meaning of 'relations (of substances)'. 2. Its bilateral combinability

THE CONJUNCTION
§ 353. The conjunction is a part of speech characterized by the following features. 1. Its lexico-grammatical meaning of 'relations between substances, actions, properties, situations,

THE ARTICLE
§ 364. The two words a(n), the form a separate group or class characterized by a) the lexico-grammatical meaning of '(in)definiteness', •b) the right-hand combinability with nouns,

THE PARTICLE
§ 372. The particle as a part of speech is characterized by the following features: 1. Its lexico-grammatical meaning of 'emphatic specifi cation'. 2. Its unilateral combina,

INTRODUCTION
§ 378. The basic unit of syntax is the sentence.There exist many definitions of the sentence, but none of them is generally accepted 1. But in the majority of cas

L/j8 Хаймсшич и
tences when the predicate verb contains no morphological word-morphemes. § 392. A unit of a higher level, as we know, contains units of the next lower level. A sentence contai

THE STRUCTURE OF A SENTENCE
§ 396. As defined (§ 3), when studying the structure of a unit, we find out its components, mostly units of the next lower level, their arrangement and their functions as parts of the unit.

A. As to Their Structure
§ 403. Sentences with only one predication are called simple sentences. Those with more than one predication have usually no general name 3. We shall call them

Combinations of Sentences
§ 416. The sentence is usually the limit of grammatical analysis. Conrbinations of sentences have never got adequate attention on the part of linguists. Yet the necessity of extending linguistic an

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
§ 420. Traditionally the subject and the predicate are regarded as the primary or principal parts of the sentence and the attribute, the object and the adverbial modifier — as the secondary parts

The Predicate
§ 430. The predicate is the member of a predication con taining the mood and tense (or only mood) components of predicativity. " E. g. This dictionary employs a pronunciat

G) Adverbials of attending circumstances
He sank down in his chair, resting his chin in his hand. (Dreiser). - §456. Qualitative and quantitative adverbial complements are more closely connected with their headword

Attributes
§ 459. Attributes are secondary parts of the sentence serving to modify nouns or noun-equivalents in whatever functions they are used in the sentence. In simple sentences attributes can

Extensions
§ 467. Extensions are adjuncts of adjectives, adverbs and adlinks in a sentence. They differ from complements and attributes in being usually modifiers of modifiers, or ter-tiaries,

Connectives
§ 469. Connectives are linking-words considered as a secondary part of the sentence. They are mostly prepositions and conjunctions. She played and sang to him. (London). C

Го-Specifiers
§ 471. The peculiar combinability and functions of particles distinguish them from all other words in the sentence. They .-are not adjuncts of definite parts of speech like complements, .attributes

Parenthetical Elements
§ 473. Parenthetical elements are peculiar parts of the sentence. a) They are characterized by negative combinability with the other words of the sentence. b) They are, as it

WORD-ORDER IN SIMPLE SENTENCES 1. The Position of the Subject and the Predicate in the Sentence
§ 477. We have already dwelt upon the fact that in Modern "English syntactical relations of words in the sentence are very often indicated by the position the words occupy in the sentence.

II. The Position of the Object
a) The Place of the Direct Object § 479. The direct object is usually placed after the verb unless the indirect object precedes it. He offered me his help. However

THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE
§ 492. Composite sentences, as we know (§ 403), divide into compound and complex sentences. The difference between them is not only in the relations of coordination or subordination, as usually st

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE
§ 496. The clauses of compound sentences are of equal rank, but usually the clause preceding the conjunction is regarded as the initial clause to which the other clause is related. These relations

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
§ 498. The principal clauses of complex sentences are usually not classified, though their meanings are not neutral with regard to the meanings of the subordinate clauses. Cf. He will c

Complement Clauses
a) Predicative Clauses § 509. The sentence The question is where he can be found consists of the principal clause the question is and the predicative clause where he can

Attribute Clauses
§ 518. Attributive clauses are postpositive adjuncts of nouns. They are commonly divided into relative and a'pposi-tiveclauses. Relative clauses are introduced by pronouns (or asyn

Extension Clauses
§ 520. Extension clauses are postpositive adjuncts of adjectives, adverbs and adlinks. E. g. It is indeed doubtful how he had become aware that Ro

Parenthetical Clauses
§ 521. Most authors who do not regard parenthetical elements as parts of the sentence treat It is past ten, I think as a simple sentence 1. We do not find this view convin

COMPOUND-COMPLEX AND COMPLEX-COMPOUND SENTENCES
§ 523. Sometimes subordination and coordination may be combined within one sentence, in which case we may have compound-complex and complex-compound sentences. 1 See M. Ganshma,

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
§ 524. Among the composite sentences of English and other languages we find a peculiar type differing from the rest. Cf. He said, "/ love you". (Greene). ,

CONCLUSION
§ 530. We have made a survey of the morphological and syntactical systems of Modern English, resorting, where appropriate, to comparison with Modern Russian. Now, by way of summing up, we shall ma

Теоретическая грамматика английского языка
(на английском языке) Редактор Л. И, Кравцова Издательский редактор Л. А. Долгопятова Технический редактор Т. Л. Гарина Корректоры Л. Т. Тихонова и