II. The Position of the Object - раздел Иностранные языки, Some General Remarks A) The Place Of The Direct Object
§ 479. The Direct Object Is Usuall...
a) The Place of the Direct Object
§ 479. The direct object is usually placed after the verb unless the indirect object precedes it.
He offered me his help.
However the direct object may be put before its verb or may be severed from the latter by other parts of the sentence.
She lavishly displayed for my pleasure all her charms... (Bronte).
§ 480. Sometimes the object is pushed to the front of the sentence. It occurs:
1) When the direct object is an interrogative word which is naturally placed at the head of the sentence to form a spe cial question, as in What did you dot Who (m) will you meet there*
2) When the direct object serves to connect two thoughts 1.
/ see he is ready to apologize. This he can't avoid.
3) When the object is made emphatic, the speaker wishing to attract attention towards it. Not asyllable did she utter. Here the particle not emphasizes the word syllable.
§ 481. The direct object is separated from its verb by some other parts of the sentence — adverbial complements, prepositional objects — when it is intentionally placed at the end of the sentence for the sake of emphasis, logical stress.
And unexpectedly he saw against the background of the forest two approaching figures. (Betteredge).
b)The Position of the Indirect Object
§ 482. The indirect object cannot be used in the sentence without the direct object. The indirect object is regularly put before the direct object as in That gave me a new idea.
The only possible exception to the rule is the use of the direct object it before the indirect object, / gave ithim. In
1 А. И. С m и p н и ц к и и, op. cit., p. 216.
A. I. Smirnitsky's 1opinion this can be easily explained by the nature of it which denotes a thing and not a person and cannot be mistaken for the indirect object.
The indirect object cannot be pushed to the front of the sentence because that would impair its only distinct formal feature — its position immediately after the verb, before the direct object.
c)The Position of Prepositional Objects
§ 483. In most cases they follow the direct object, though for stylistic purposes, i. e. for emphasis and expressiveness, they may be placed at the head of the sentence.
Cf. / didn't tell him about Mary's departure. About Mary's departure I didn't tell him.
Occasionally the prepositional object js placed before the direct object (particularly if the prepositional object happens to be a '/o-phrase').
/ tecommended to himsome effective measures.
III. The Position of Adverbial Complements
§ 484. Adverbial complements are often referred to as the most mobile par'ts of the sentence 2. We must bear in mind, however, that the position of adverbial complements is not altogether free, though it is more varied than that of the other parts of the sentence.
§ 485. Adverbials of place and time are normally placed either at the end of the sentence (e. g. It happened о п Wednesday), or at the beginning of the sentence (О п Wednesday he came again. Along the narrow street moved a queer procession.).
In case there are both an adverbial of place and an adverbial of time, the former comes nearer the verb than the latter.
They were married in Brighton in 1876.
1 Op., cit , p. 217.
2 А. И. С м и p н и ц к и и, op cit., p. 228; Б. А. И л ь и ш, op. cit., р. 42; Н. Sweet, op. cit. § 1833, etc.
Adverbials of indefinite time and frequency (always, never, seldom, ever, often, etc.) are placed before a synthetic predicate verb and within an analytical predicate verb.
Cf. / always helped him. I have always helped him.
A. I. Smirnitsky * explains this position of the adverbials in question by their functioning as a sort of time attribute to the verb, owing to which they form an inalienable part of the predicate.
If these adverbials are placed at the head of the sentence they become emphatic. Never shall I forget that day.
Adverbial complements of manner are likewise closely allied with the verb and are mostly placed either after the verb (or after the object) or within the analytical form.
"Good-bye", she answered softly. (Galsworthy). He moved nervously about, while Carrie looked at him confusedly. (Dreiser).
He has openly defied the law.
IV. The Position of Attributes
§ 486. Attributes may precede or follow the word they modify and accordingly we distinguish prepositive and postpositive attributes. Both prepositive and postpositive attributes are placed in close proximity to the noun modified.
My dear girl. Her desire to p I e a s e was quite apparent.
§ 487. The position of an attribute depends both on the head-word a nd on the attribute. If the head-word is a pronoun, the attribute is, as a rule, postpositive.
E. g. I can't tell you anything important yet.
A noun has mostly prepositive attributes, but some attributes are regularly postpositive.
a) Prepositional phrases.
E. g. Men of good will, the idea of going there, an old friend of mine.
b) Infinitives, infinitival and participial constructions.
I
1 Op. cit., p. 229.
E.g. I've no wish to see him to-night. This is a book read and enjoyed by young and old, a book for you to read.
c) Adjectives in -able, -ible.
E. g. The happiest man imaginable, a decision fully justifiable.
In certain set expressions like from time immemorial, court martial, knight errant the position of the attribute was influenced by French.
§ 488. In postposition attributes often acquire what we might call a 'semi-predicative' connotation.
E. g. something important «a something (which is) important.
A man in love «^ a man (who is) in love. A book enjoyed ^ a book (which is) enjoyed. A decision justifiable «=; a decision (which is) justifiable.
This is probably the reason why words whose main function is that of predicative complements are sometimes used as postpositive attributes.
E. g. Barbara asleep was a symbol. (Galsworthy). /'// stand up to any man alive. (Shaw).
^
§ 489. If there are two or more prepositive attributes to one and the same noun their order is dependent upon a number of factors which appear to be semantic and stylistic rather than grammatical. :
a) The general principle is that we tend to place closest to the head-word that attribute which is most closely connected with the noun and to which the greatest importance is'attached in the given context.
E. g steady dangerous eyes; a short killing remark.
b) The general naturally comes before the specific as in a slow laborious process, a nice good-natured smile.
c) There is a tangible tendency to follow a definite rhythmi cal pattern by placing a shorter adjective before the longer one. That rude ignorant man.
1 See English Language Teaching, v. XVI, No. 4, 1962, p. 196.
§ 490. Though the sequence of the attributes modifying one noun is in most cases influenced by several of the above-mentioned factors concurrently, we may speak of certain rules or rather tendencies of their arrangement in accordance with their meanings. The table presently to be given shows these rules.
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II. The Position of the Object
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SOME GENERAL REMARKS
§ 1. In this book the phoneme, the morpheme, the word,and the sentenceare regarded as the basic units of language and speech. The definitions of these units have n
INTRODUCTION
§ 6. There exist many definitions of the. term word and none of them is generally accepted. But in the majority of cases pedple actually experience no difficulty in separating one word from
THE STRUCTURE OF WORDS
§ 7. One of the main properties of a word is its double nature. It is material because it can he heard or seen, and it is immaterial or ideal as far as its meaning is concerned. We shall regard the
THE CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS
§ 19. A morpheme usually has more than one meaning. This is the case, for instance, with both the lexical and the grammatical morpheme in the word runs. The morpheme run- has the following m
THE NOUN
§ 64. As follows from our previous discussion of the parts of speech in English, the noun may be defined as a part of speech characterized by the following features:
1. The lexico-grammati
The Category of Number
§ 71. The category of number of Engl ish nouns is the system of opposemes (such as girl — girls, foot — feet, etc.) showing whether the noun stands for оде object or more than
Noun Grammemes in Speech
§ 87. An English noun lexeme may contain four words at most (boy, boys, boy's, boys'). Each of these words, as we know (§ 19), represents not only the lexeme, but a certain grammeme as well.
THE ADJECTIVE
§ 101. Adjectives are a part of speech characterized by the following typical features:
1. The lexico-grammatical meaning of 'attributes (of substances)'. It should be understood that
Adjective Grammemes in Speech
§ 110. An English adjective lexeme may contain three words at most (strong — stronger — strongest) representing three grammemes. The fourth grammeme contains words with the oblique me
THE ADVERB
§ 116. The adverb is a part of speech characterized by the following features: *
1. The lexico-grammatical meaning of "qualitative, quan titative or circumstantial characteri
THE NUMERAL
§ 130. The numeral as a part of speech is characterized by
1) its lexico-grammatical meaning of 'number',
2) the category of numerical qualification represented in opposemes l
PRONOUNS
, § 139. It has been shown above that words fall into classes known as parts of speech in accordance with their lexico-grammatical meanings, morphological categories, typical stem-building element
Хаймович и др
But what is more important, pronouns can be substituted «not only for nouns, but for othe
Generalizing Pronouns
§ 178. Here belong such pronouns as all, both, each, either, every and its compounds (everyone, everybody, everything, everywhere) which give a generalizing indication of persons, th
THE VERB
§ 187. Analysing the verb in Modern Russian, V. V. Vi-nogradov characterizes it as "the most complex and capacious part of speech" J. Likewise, A. I. Smirnitsky 2 st
The Category of Voice
§ 203. The category of voice is the system of two-member opposemes (loves — is loved, loving — being loved, to love — to be loved, has loved — has, been loved, et
The Category of Aspect
§ 218. The category of aspect is a system of two-member opposemes such as works — is working, has worked — has been working, to work — to be working showing the characte
The Indicative Mood
§ 229. The indicative mood is the basic mood of the verb. Morphologically it is the most developed system including all the categories of the verb.
Semantically it is a fact mood. It serve
The Subjunctive Mood
§ 239. Probably the only thing linguists are unanimous about with regard to the subjunctive mood is that it represents an action as a 'non-fact', as something imaginary,
1
The Imperative Mood
§ 247. The imperative mood represents an action as a command, urging, request, exhortation addressed to one's interlocutor^). It is a direct expression of one's will. Therefore it is much more 's
Verb Grammemes in Speech
§ 251. When used in speech a word has but one of its lexical meanings and all of its grammatical meanings (see § 21). Thus in the sentence He writes to me every week, the verb writes
Indicative Mood Grammemes
The Present, Non-Continuous, Non-Perfect
§ 253. As a part of the verb system it may be said to present an action in the present (present tense) unspecified as to its character (non-contin
Voice Grammemes
§ 288. In the' system of the English language the active (non-marked) and the passive (marked) members of the voice opposeme are equal in rank, mutually complementing each other. This is not the ca
Subjunctive Mood Grammemes in Speech
§ 293. As we know, there is not a single subjunctive mood grammeme which has no homonyms in the indicative or in the imperative mood (or both). The discrimination of homo-nymous grammemes rests on
Imperative Mood Grammemes in Speech
§ 302. In most cases they serve to present an order, command, exhortation, request, etc. as a direct expression of the speaker's will.
In certain surroundings, however, mostly in
The Gerund
§ 321. The gerund is a verbid characterized by the following features:
1. Its dual lexico-grammatical meaning of an action partially viewed as a substance.
2. The categories
THE RESPONSE WORDS
§ 334. The response-words yes and no are characterized as a separate class by
a) their meaning of 'response statement',
b) their negative combinability,
c)
THE INTERJECTION
§ 337. The interjection is a part of speech characterized by the following features.
1. It expresses "emotions or will without naming them.
2. It has no grammatical categorie
THE PREPOSITION
§ 342. The preposition is a part of speech characterized by the following features:
Kits lexico-grammatical meaning of 'relations (of substances)'.
2. Its bilateral combinability
THE CONJUNCTION
§ 353. The conjunction is a part of speech characterized by the following features.
1. Its lexico-grammatical meaning of 'relations between substances, actions, properties, situations,
THE ARTICLE
§ 364. The two words a(n), the form a separate group or class characterized by
a) the lexico-grammatical meaning of '(in)definiteness', •b) the right-hand combinability with nouns,
THE PARTICLE
§ 372. The particle as a part of speech is characterized by the following features:
1. Its lexico-grammatical meaning of 'emphatic specifi cation'.
2. Its unilateral combina,
INTRODUCTION
§ 378. The basic unit of syntax is the sentence.There exist many definitions of the sentence, but none of them is generally accepted 1. But in the majority of cas
L/j8 Хаймсшич и
tences when the predicate verb contains no morphological word-morphemes.
§ 392. A unit of a higher level, as we know, contains units of the next lower level. A sentence contai
THE STRUCTURE OF A SENTENCE
§ 396. As defined (§ 3), when studying the structure of a unit, we find out its components, mostly units of the next lower level, their arrangement and their functions as parts of the unit.
A. As to Their Structure
§ 403. Sentences with only one predication are called simple sentences. Those with more than one predication have usually no general name 3. We shall call them
Combinations of Sentences
§ 416. The sentence is usually the limit of grammatical analysis. Conrbinations of sentences have never got adequate attention on the part of linguists. Yet the necessity of extending linguistic an
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
§ 420. Traditionally the subject and the predicate are regarded as the primary or principal parts of the sentence and the attribute, the object and the adverbial modifier — as the secondary parts
The Predicate
§ 430. The predicate is the member of a predication con taining the mood and tense (or only mood) components of predicativity. "
E. g. This dictionary employs a pronunciat
G) Adverbials of attending circumstances
He sank down in his chair, resting his chin in his hand. (Dreiser). -
§456. Qualitative and quantitative adverbial complements are more closely connected with their headword
Attributes
§ 459. Attributes are secondary parts of the sentence serving to modify nouns or noun-equivalents in whatever functions they are used in the sentence.
In simple sentences attributes can
Extensions
§ 467. Extensions are adjuncts of adjectives, adverbs and adlinks in a sentence. They differ from complements and attributes in being usually modifiers of modifiers, or ter-tiaries,
Connectives
§ 469. Connectives are linking-words considered as a secondary part of the sentence. They are mostly prepositions and conjunctions.
She played and sang to him. (London).
C
Го-Specifiers
§ 471. The peculiar combinability and functions of particles distinguish them from all other words in the sentence. They .-are not adjuncts of definite parts of speech like complements, .attributes
Parenthetical Elements
§ 473. Parenthetical elements are peculiar parts of the sentence.
a) They are characterized by negative combinability with the other words of the sentence.
b) They are, as it
THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE
§ 492. Composite sentences, as we know (§ 403), divide into compound and complex sentences. The difference between them is not only in the relations of coordination or subordination, as usually st
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE
§ 496. The clauses of compound sentences are of equal rank, but usually the clause preceding the conjunction is regarded as the initial clause to which the other clause is related. These relations
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
§ 498. The principal clauses of complex sentences are usually not classified, though their meanings are not neutral with regard to the meanings of the subordinate clauses.
Cf. He will c
Complement Clauses
a) Predicative Clauses
§ 509. The sentence The question is where he can be found consists of the principal clause the question is and the predicative clause where he can
Attribute Clauses
§ 518. Attributive clauses are postpositive adjuncts of nouns. They are commonly divided into relative and a'pposi-tiveclauses. Relative clauses are introduced by pronouns (or asyn
Extension Clauses
§ 520. Extension clauses are postpositive adjuncts of adjectives, adverbs and adlinks.
E. g. It is indeed doubtful how he had become aware that
Ro
Parenthetical Clauses
§ 521. Most authors who do not regard parenthetical elements as parts of the sentence treat It is past ten, I think as a simple sentence 1. We do not find this view convin
COMPOUND-COMPLEX AND COMPLEX-COMPOUND SENTENCES
§ 523. Sometimes subordination and coordination may be combined within one sentence, in which case we may have compound-complex and complex-compound sentences.
1 See M. Ganshma,
DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
§ 524. Among the composite sentences of English and other languages we find a peculiar type differing from the rest.
Cf. He said, "/ love you". (Greene). ,
CONCLUSION
§ 530. We have made a survey of the morphological and syntactical systems of Modern English, resorting, where appropriate, to comparison with Modern Russian. Now, by way of summing up, we shall ma
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