Subjunctive Mood Grammemes in Speech - раздел Иностранные языки, Some General Remarks § 293. As We Know, There Is Not A Single Subjunctive Mood Grammeme Which Has ...
§ 293. As we know, there is not a single subjunctive mood grammeme which has no homonyms in the indicative or in the imperative mood (or both). The discrimination of homo-nymous grammemes rests on the combinations they form and on their occurrence in certain types of sentences and clauses.
§ 294. As already mentioned (§ 240), subjunctive mood grammemes represented by live, be invited, be coming (we may call them 'former present' subjunctive, or 'subjunctive Г х) are rapidly falling into disuse, being replaced by the corresponding should grammemes (should live, should be invited, should be coming). Both types of grammemes present an action as problematic, though not actually contrary to reality.
Subjunctive 1 grammemes are decidedly uncolloquial (save in American English), being generally confined to official, elevated style. They are felt to impart official flavour, solemnity, bombastic tinge. The should grammemes are stylistically neutral and are therefore employed in different stylistic varieties of speech.
§ 295. Representatives of subjunctive' I grammemes can be distinguished from their indicative and imperative mood homonyms as follows.
1) By their left-hand combinability with he, she, it and 'singular' nouns. Cf. ... he (she, Tom) invite (subjunctive), i nv it e (imperative), / (we, you, they, students) invite (indicative or subjunctive). In other words, subjunc tive I grammemes contain no person and number distinc tions, unlike their indicative counterparts.
2) By their being for the most part interchangeable (neg lecting stylistic differences) with corresponding should gram memes. Cf. ... he invite — ...he should invite.
Should grammemes have no number and person distinctions either. The should — would opposeme is neutralized in the environments in which subjunctive I grammemes are used, the member of neutralization being should.
3) By their regularly occurring in certain types of subor dinate clauses (as well as their s/zou/d-synonyms), though
1 The term was introduced by A. I. Smirnitsky to denote a separate mood. See op. cit, p. 346—350.
they sqmetimes occur in simple sentences expressing a realizable wish (Success attend youl), in formulas like Long live ..., God save ..., Far be it from me, etc
§ 296. Following are some types of clauses in which should grammemes and their synonyms are regularly used 1.
a) After expressions of subjective appraisaF(/^ is neces sary, important, desirable, essential, unavoidable, shameful, disgraceful, terrible, appalling, inevitable, surprising, im probable, curious, ironical, etc.).
// is essential that he should approach it with an open mind. (Linklater).
It is absolutely imperative that he r e ma in ai his post. (People's World).
b) Clauses dependent on such verbs as suggest, demand, insist, recommend, move, vote, propose, require, etc.
He suggested that collective bargaining should be made legally binding on both sides. (Daily Worker).
The second step of any experiment demanded that he p о s -sess three separate techniques. (Wilson)
c) Clauses dependent on nouns of kindred lexical mean ings (suggestion, demand, urging, also reason, idea, wish, plan).
• E. g. He wound it up with the suggestion that the Committee should resume its work. (Daily Worker).
She was hurt by his demand that she stop visiting her sister-in-law. (Christie).
d) Adverbial clauses introduced by lest, for fear, that.
E. g. "Take steps at once lest the shooting should be
resumed. (Daily Worker). She stayed away lest he t h i n k her obtrusive. (Linklater).
§ 297. The invited, wrote, were, etc. grammemes of the subjunctive mood system and all the grammemes containing
1 A more detailed description of the subjunctive mood uses can be found in И Б Хлебникова. Сослагательное наклонение в современном английском языке. Л., 1958.
the grammatical word -morphemes had and were (had come, were brought, etc.) may be called 'former past' subjunctive or subjunctive II grammemes.
Subjunctive II grammemes are correlated with should grammemes but in a way different from that of subjunctive I grammemes. The latter are related to should grammemes paradigmatically, as synonyms: either these or those are used in certain clauses. Subjunctive II grammemes are related to should grammemes syntagmatically; i. e. they are often used together in the same complex sentence: a 'subjunctive I Г verb in the subordinate and a should-verb in the principal clause.
E.g. If I were you I sh о и I d be more attentive. If she h a d n't interfered I should have gone too far. (Williamson).
We must only bear in mind the following: should grammemes correlated with subjunctive II grammemes have would opposites,1 i. e. they contain the meaning of 'first person" as opposed to 'non-first person'. It would be more correct therefore to call them should-would grammemes (or, shorter, would grammemes) to distinguish from the synonyms of subjunctive I grammemes.
§ 298. Both members of subjunctive II grammemes and those of should-would grammemes present an action as contrary to reality.
E.g. If he were older and understood the real meaning of his act, he w о и I d n' t d r e a m of going there. (Browne).
§ 299. As usual, the perfect forms express 'priority', the non-perfect ones expressing no specification in this respect; they may denote an action imagined as simultaneous with some real action or following it. If no real action is mentioned in the sentence priority is expressed with reference to the act of speech.
E. g. I wish you were more reliable.
I wish you h a d n' t followed his advice. • If he w e r e to say it, she would reply "All
right". (Wilson).
Would grammemes tend to oust should grammemes, see § 265.
Even had she not guessed he was gham).
known, she a good tennis
would have player. (Mau-
§ 300. Besides being regularly used in subordinate clauses of condition (or concession, introduced by even if) subjunctive II grammemes are actually obligatory in clauses following the verb 'wish'.
E. g. I wish you were more attentive. I wish you h a d n't done it.
Likewise, they regularly occur after as if, as though (in predicative and comparative clauses).
E. g. He looked as if he were an animation of n La Fontaine fable. (Wilson).
Eric listened entranced as though Haviland himself had been the discoverer rather than the bearer of tidings. (Wilson).
§301. Should—would subjunctive grammemes, besides being used in principal clauses of complex sentences (in combination with subjunctive II grammemes in subordinate clauses) may occur in simple sentences, e. g. But for you the wrong man would have been punished, occasionally in subordinate clauses, e. g. This plan which would have b e e n a success a week before, now failed through (The Worker), in which case they are distinguished from their indicative homonyms in not having those surroundings which regularly bring about the appearance of the corresponding indicative grammemes.
Cf. / know hewouldsay exactly the same thing under
the circumstances. (Wilson). He saidthat they would be back in an hour or so.
Would say cannot be mistaken for a member of an indicative grammeme (relative posteriority), non-perfect, active, etc.), its distribution, its environment being different from that of posteriority grammemes.
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Subjunctive Mood Grammemes in Speech
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SOME GENERAL REMARKS
§ 1. In this book the phoneme, the morpheme, the word,and the sentenceare regarded as the basic units of language and speech. The definitions of these units have n
INTRODUCTION
§ 6. There exist many definitions of the. term word and none of them is generally accepted. But in the majority of cases pedple actually experience no difficulty in separating one word from
THE STRUCTURE OF WORDS
§ 7. One of the main properties of a word is its double nature. It is material because it can he heard or seen, and it is immaterial or ideal as far as its meaning is concerned. We shall regard the
THE CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS
§ 19. A morpheme usually has more than one meaning. This is the case, for instance, with both the lexical and the grammatical morpheme in the word runs. The morpheme run- has the following m
THE NOUN
§ 64. As follows from our previous discussion of the parts of speech in English, the noun may be defined as a part of speech characterized by the following features:
1. The lexico-grammati
The Category of Number
§ 71. The category of number of Engl ish nouns is the system of opposemes (such as girl — girls, foot — feet, etc.) showing whether the noun stands for оде object or more than
Noun Grammemes in Speech
§ 87. An English noun lexeme may contain four words at most (boy, boys, boy's, boys'). Each of these words, as we know (§ 19), represents not only the lexeme, but a certain grammeme as well.
THE ADJECTIVE
§ 101. Adjectives are a part of speech characterized by the following typical features:
1. The lexico-grammatical meaning of 'attributes (of substances)'. It should be understood that
Adjective Grammemes in Speech
§ 110. An English adjective lexeme may contain three words at most (strong — stronger — strongest) representing three grammemes. The fourth grammeme contains words with the oblique me
THE ADVERB
§ 116. The adverb is a part of speech characterized by the following features: *
1. The lexico-grammatical meaning of "qualitative, quan titative or circumstantial characteri
THE NUMERAL
§ 130. The numeral as a part of speech is characterized by
1) its lexico-grammatical meaning of 'number',
2) the category of numerical qualification represented in opposemes l
PRONOUNS
, § 139. It has been shown above that words fall into classes known as parts of speech in accordance with their lexico-grammatical meanings, morphological categories, typical stem-building element
Хаймович и др
But what is more important, pronouns can be substituted «not only for nouns, but for othe
Generalizing Pronouns
§ 178. Here belong such pronouns as all, both, each, either, every and its compounds (everyone, everybody, everything, everywhere) which give a generalizing indication of persons, th
THE VERB
§ 187. Analysing the verb in Modern Russian, V. V. Vi-nogradov characterizes it as "the most complex and capacious part of speech" J. Likewise, A. I. Smirnitsky 2 st
The Category of Voice
§ 203. The category of voice is the system of two-member opposemes (loves — is loved, loving — being loved, to love — to be loved, has loved — has, been loved, et
The Category of Aspect
§ 218. The category of aspect is a system of two-member opposemes such as works — is working, has worked — has been working, to work — to be working showing the characte
The Indicative Mood
§ 229. The indicative mood is the basic mood of the verb. Morphologically it is the most developed system including all the categories of the verb.
Semantically it is a fact mood. It serve
The Subjunctive Mood
§ 239. Probably the only thing linguists are unanimous about with regard to the subjunctive mood is that it represents an action as a 'non-fact', as something imaginary,
1
The Imperative Mood
§ 247. The imperative mood represents an action as a command, urging, request, exhortation addressed to one's interlocutor^). It is a direct expression of one's will. Therefore it is much more 's
Verb Grammemes in Speech
§ 251. When used in speech a word has but one of its lexical meanings and all of its grammatical meanings (see § 21). Thus in the sentence He writes to me every week, the verb writes
Indicative Mood Grammemes
The Present, Non-Continuous, Non-Perfect
§ 253. As a part of the verb system it may be said to present an action in the present (present tense) unspecified as to its character (non-contin
Voice Grammemes
§ 288. In the' system of the English language the active (non-marked) and the passive (marked) members of the voice opposeme are equal in rank, mutually complementing each other. This is not the ca
Imperative Mood Grammemes in Speech
§ 302. In most cases they serve to present an order, command, exhortation, request, etc. as a direct expression of the speaker's will.
In certain surroundings, however, mostly in
The Gerund
§ 321. The gerund is a verbid characterized by the following features:
1. Its dual lexico-grammatical meaning of an action partially viewed as a substance.
2. The categories
THE RESPONSE WORDS
§ 334. The response-words yes and no are characterized as a separate class by
a) their meaning of 'response statement',
b) their negative combinability,
c)
THE INTERJECTION
§ 337. The interjection is a part of speech characterized by the following features.
1. It expresses "emotions or will without naming them.
2. It has no grammatical categorie
THE PREPOSITION
§ 342. The preposition is a part of speech characterized by the following features:
Kits lexico-grammatical meaning of 'relations (of substances)'.
2. Its bilateral combinability
THE CONJUNCTION
§ 353. The conjunction is a part of speech characterized by the following features.
1. Its lexico-grammatical meaning of 'relations between substances, actions, properties, situations,
THE ARTICLE
§ 364. The two words a(n), the form a separate group or class characterized by
a) the lexico-grammatical meaning of '(in)definiteness', •b) the right-hand combinability with nouns,
THE PARTICLE
§ 372. The particle as a part of speech is characterized by the following features:
1. Its lexico-grammatical meaning of 'emphatic specifi cation'.
2. Its unilateral combina,
INTRODUCTION
§ 378. The basic unit of syntax is the sentence.There exist many definitions of the sentence, but none of them is generally accepted 1. But in the majority of cas
L/j8 Хаймсшич и
tences when the predicate verb contains no morphological word-morphemes.
§ 392. A unit of a higher level, as we know, contains units of the next lower level. A sentence contai
THE STRUCTURE OF A SENTENCE
§ 396. As defined (§ 3), when studying the structure of a unit, we find out its components, mostly units of the next lower level, their arrangement and their functions as parts of the unit.
A. As to Their Structure
§ 403. Sentences with only one predication are called simple sentences. Those with more than one predication have usually no general name 3. We shall call them
Combinations of Sentences
§ 416. The sentence is usually the limit of grammatical analysis. Conrbinations of sentences have never got adequate attention on the part of linguists. Yet the necessity of extending linguistic an
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
§ 420. Traditionally the subject and the predicate are regarded as the primary or principal parts of the sentence and the attribute, the object and the adverbial modifier — as the secondary parts
The Predicate
§ 430. The predicate is the member of a predication con taining the mood and tense (or only mood) components of predicativity. "
E. g. This dictionary employs a pronunciat
G) Adverbials of attending circumstances
He sank down in his chair, resting his chin in his hand. (Dreiser). -
§456. Qualitative and quantitative adverbial complements are more closely connected with their headword
Attributes
§ 459. Attributes are secondary parts of the sentence serving to modify nouns or noun-equivalents in whatever functions they are used in the sentence.
In simple sentences attributes can
Extensions
§ 467. Extensions are adjuncts of adjectives, adverbs and adlinks in a sentence. They differ from complements and attributes in being usually modifiers of modifiers, or ter-tiaries,
Connectives
§ 469. Connectives are linking-words considered as a secondary part of the sentence. They are mostly prepositions and conjunctions.
She played and sang to him. (London).
C
Го-Specifiers
§ 471. The peculiar combinability and functions of particles distinguish them from all other words in the sentence. They .-are not adjuncts of definite parts of speech like complements, .attributes
Parenthetical Elements
§ 473. Parenthetical elements are peculiar parts of the sentence.
a) They are characterized by negative combinability with the other words of the sentence.
b) They are, as it
II. The Position of the Object
a) The Place of the Direct Object
§ 479. The direct object is usually placed after the verb unless the indirect object precedes it.
He offered me his help.
However
THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE
§ 492. Composite sentences, as we know (§ 403), divide into compound and complex sentences. The difference between them is not only in the relations of coordination or subordination, as usually st
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE
§ 496. The clauses of compound sentences are of equal rank, but usually the clause preceding the conjunction is regarded as the initial clause to which the other clause is related. These relations
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
§ 498. The principal clauses of complex sentences are usually not classified, though their meanings are not neutral with regard to the meanings of the subordinate clauses.
Cf. He will c
Complement Clauses
a) Predicative Clauses
§ 509. The sentence The question is where he can be found consists of the principal clause the question is and the predicative clause where he can
Attribute Clauses
§ 518. Attributive clauses are postpositive adjuncts of nouns. They are commonly divided into relative and a'pposi-tiveclauses. Relative clauses are introduced by pronouns (or asyn
Extension Clauses
§ 520. Extension clauses are postpositive adjuncts of adjectives, adverbs and adlinks.
E. g. It is indeed doubtful how he had become aware that
Ro
Parenthetical Clauses
§ 521. Most authors who do not regard parenthetical elements as parts of the sentence treat It is past ten, I think as a simple sentence 1. We do not find this view convin
COMPOUND-COMPLEX AND COMPLEX-COMPOUND SENTENCES
§ 523. Sometimes subordination and coordination may be combined within one sentence, in which case we may have compound-complex and complex-compound sentences.
1 See M. Ganshma,
DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
§ 524. Among the composite sentences of English and other languages we find a peculiar type differing from the rest.
Cf. He said, "/ love you". (Greene). ,
CONCLUSION
§ 530. We have made a survey of the morphological and syntactical systems of Modern English, resorting, where appropriate, to comparison with Modern Russian. Now, by way of summing up, we shall ma
Теоретическая грамматика английского языка
(на английском языке)
Редактор Л. И, Кравцова Издательский редактор Л. А. Долгопятова
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