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THE ROLE OF NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING
THE ROLE OF NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING - раздел Образование, I. Introduction The Role Of Natural Language Processing ...
I. INTRODUCTION
THE ROLE OF NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING
LINGUISTICS AND ITS STRUCTURE
WHAT WE MEAN BY COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS
WORD, WHAT IS IT?
THE IMPORTANT ROLE OF THE FUNDAMENTAL SCIENCE
CURRENT STATE OF APPLIED RESEARCH ON SPANISH
CONCLUSIONS
II. A HISTORICAL OUTLINE
THE STRUCTURALIST APPROACH
INITIAL CONTRIBUTION OF CHOMSKY
A SIMPLE CONTEXT-FREE GRAMMAR
TRANSFORMATIONAL GRAMMARS
THE LINGUISTIC RESEARCH AFTER CHOMSKY: VALENCIES AND INTERPRETATION
LINGUISTIC RESEARCH AFTER CHOMSKY: CONSTRAINTS
HEAD-DRIVEN PHRASE STRUCTURE GRAMMAR
THE IDEA OF UNIFICATION
THE MEANING Û TEXT THEORY: MULTISTAGE TRANSFORMER AND GOVERNMENT PATTERNS
THE MEANING Û TEXT THEORY: DEPENDENCY TREES
THE MEANING Û TEXT THEORY: SEMANTIC LINKS
CONCLUSIONS
III. PRODUCTS OF COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS: PRESENT AND PROSPECTIVE
CLASSIFICATION OF APPLIED LINGUISTIC SYSTEMS
AUTOMATIC HYPHENATION
SPELL CHECKING
GRAMMAR CHECKING
STYLE CHECKING
REFERENCES TO WORDS AND WORD COMBINATIONS
INFORMATION RETRIEVAL
TOPICAL SUMMARIZATION
AUTOMATIC TRANSLATION
NATURAL LANGUAGE INTERFACE
EXTRACTION OF FACTUAL DATA FROM TEXTS
TEXT GENERATION
SYSTEMS OF LANGUAGE UNDERSTANDING
RELATED SYSTEMS
CONCLUSIONS
IV. LANGUAGE AS A MEANING Û TEXT TRANSFORMER
POSSIBLE POINTS OF VIEW ON NATURAL LANGUAGE
LANGUAGE AS A BI-DIRECTIONAL TRANSFORMER
TEXT, WHAT IS IT?
MEANING, WHAT IS IT?
TWO WAYS TO REPRESENT MEANING
DECOMPOSITION AND ATOMIZATION OF MEANING
NOT-UNIQUENESS OF MEANING Þ TEXT MAPPING: SYNONYMY
NOT-UNIQUENESS OF TEXT Þ MEANING MAPPING: HOMONYMY
MORE ON HOMONYMY
MULTISTAGE CHARACTER OF THE MEANING Û TEXT TRANSFORMER
TRANSLATION AS A MULTISTAGE TRANSFORMATION
TWO SIDES OF A SIGN
LINGUISTIC SIGN
LINGUISTIC SIGN IN THE MMT
LINGUISTIC SIGN IN HPSG
ARE SIGNIFIERS GIVEN BY NATURE OR BY CONVENTION?
GENERATIVE, MTT, AND CONSTRAINT IDEAS IN COMPARISON
CONCLUSIONS
V. LINGUISTIC MODELS
WHAT IS MODELING IN GENERAL?
NEUROLINGUISTIC MODELS
PSYCHOLINGUISTIC MODELS
FUNCTIONAL MODELS OF LANGUAGE
RESEARCH LINGUISTIC MODELS
COMMON FEATURES OF MODERN MODELS OF LANGUAGE
SPECIFIC FEATURES OF THE MEANING Û TEXT MODEL
REDUCED MODELS
DO WE REALLY NEED LINGUISTIC MODELS?
ANALOGY IN NATURAL LANGUAGES
EMPIRICAL VERSUS RATIONALIST APPROACHES
LIMITED SCOPE OF THE MODERN LINGUISTIC THEORIES
CONCLUSIONS
EXERCISES
THE ROLE OF NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING
Our ancestors invented natural language many thousands of years ago for the needs of a developing human society. Modern natural languages are… For the last two centuries, humanity has successfully coped with the… The necessity for intelligent automatic text processing arises mainly from the following two circumstances, both being…LINGUISTICS AND ITS STRUCTURE
General linguistics is a nucleus [18, 36]. It studies the general structure of various natural languages and discovers the universal laws of… As far as general linguistics is concerned, its most important parts are the… · Phonology deals with sounds composing speech, with all their similarities and differences permitting to form and…WHAT WE MEAN BY COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS
The processing of natural language should be considered here in a very broad sense that will be discussed later. Actually, this course is slightly “more linguistic than computational,” for… · We are mainly interested in the formal description of language relevant to automatic language processing, rather…WORD, WHAT IS IT?
Let us consider the Spanish sentence Yo devuelvo los libros el próximo mes, pero tú me devuelves el libro ahora. How many words does… However, one can also notice that devuelvo and devuelves are forms of the same… At last, one can consider me the same as yo, but given in oblique grammatical case, even though there are no letters…THE IMPORTANT ROLE OF THE FUNDAMENTAL SCIENCE
General linguistics is a fundamental science belonging to the humanities. An analogy with another fundamental science—physics—is appropriate here. … A specialist with deep knowledge of physics would easily understand the… Moreover, since the fundamentals of physics are changing very slowly, such a specialist would be able to understand…CURRENT STATE OF APPLIED RESEARCH ON SPANISH
The number of Spanish-speaking people in the world has exceeded now 400 million, and Spanish is one of the official languages of the United Nations.… However, the lexicographic research reflected in these dictionaries is too… Formal description and algorithmization of a language is the objective of research teams in computational linguistics.…CONCLUSIONS
To develop such applications, specialists in computer science need to have adequate tools to investigate language with a view to its automatic…II. A HISTORICAL OUTLINE
A comparison with physics is appropriate here once more. For a long time, the Newtonian theory had excluded all other methods of interpretation of… In general linguistics, the phenomena under investigation are much more… Let us give now a short retrospective of the development of general linguistics in the twentieth century. The reader…THE STRUCTURALIST APPROACH
Between the 1920’s and the 1950’s, several structuralist schools were working in parallel. Most of them worked in Europe, and European structuralism… Meantime, American structuralists, Leonard Bloomfield among them, made claims…INITIAL CONTRIBUTION OF CHOMSKY
Among the formal tools developed by Chomsky and his followers, the two most important components can be distinguished: · A purely mathematical nucleus, which includes generative grammars arranged… · Attempts to describe a number of artificial and natural languages in the framework of generative grammars just…A SIMPLE CONTEXT-FREE GRAMMAR
Several production rules for replacement of a non-terminal symbol with a string of several other non-terminal symbols are used as the nucleus of any…S® NP VP
VP ® V NP
NP® D N
NP® N
Each symbol at the right side of a rule is considered a constituent of the entity symbolized at the left side. Using these rules in any possible order, we can transform S to the strings DN V D N, or D N V N, or N V D N, or N V N, etc.
An additional set of rules is taken to convert all these non-terminal symbols to the terminal symbols corresponding to the given grammatical categories. The terminals are usual words of Spanish, English, or any other language admitting the same categories and the same word order. We use the symbol “|” as a metasymbol of an alternative (i.e. for logical OR). Let the rules be the following:
N ® estudiante | niña | María | canción | edificio...
V ® ve | canta | pregunta...
D ® el | la | una | mi | nuestro...
Applying these rules to the constituents of the non-terminal strings obtained earlier, we can construct a lot of fully grammatical and meaningful Spanish sentences like María ve el edificio (from N V D N) or la estudiante canta una canción (from DN V D N). Some meaningless and/or ungrammatical sentences likecanción ve el María can be generated too. With more complicate rules, some types of ungrammaticality can be eliminated. However, to fully get rid of potentially meaningless sentences is very difficult, since from the very beginning the initial symbol does not contain any specific meaning at all. It merely presents an abstract category of a sentence of a very vast class, and the resulting meaning (or nonsense) is accumulated systematically, with the development of each constituent.
On the initial stage of the elaboration of the generative approach, the idea of independent syntax arose and the problem of natural language processing was seen as determining the syntactic structure of each sentence composing a text. Syntactic structure of a sentence was identified with the so-called constituency tree. In other words, this is a nested structure subdividing the sentence into parts, then these parts into smaller parts, and so on. This decomposition corresponds to the sequence of the grammar rules applications that generate the given sentence. For example, the Spanish sentence la estudiante canta una canción has the constituency tree represented graphically in Figure II.1. It also can be represented in the form of the following nested structure marked with square brackets:
FIGURE II.1. Example of constituency tree.
|
This structure shows the sentence S consisting of a noun phrase NP and a verb phrase VP, that in its turn consists of a verb V followed by a noun phrase NP, that in its turn consists of a determiner D (an article or pronoun) followed by a noun N that is the word canción, in this case.
TRANSFORMATIONAL GRAMMARS
During the next three decades after the rise of mathematical linguistics, much effort was devoted to improve its tools for it to better correspond… However, it soon became evident that the direct application of simple… For example, an interrogative sentence such as Does John see Mary? does not allow a nested representation as the one…THE LINGUISTIC RESEARCH AFTER CHOMSKY: VALENCIES AND INTERPRETATION
One very important linguistic idea had been suggested already by Chomsky and adopted by the newer theories. It is the subcategorization of verbs… The term valency is also used in chemistry, and this is not by accident. The… In texts, the valencies are given in specific ways depending on the verb, e.g., with a specific word order and/or a…LINGUISTIC RESEARCH AFTER CHOMSKY: CONSTRAINTS
NP(Gen, Num) ® D(Gen, Num) N(Gen, Num), where Gen and Num are variables standing for any specific gender and any… NP ® D N .HEAD-DRIVEN PHRASE STRUCTURE GRAMMAR
S ® NP(Pers, Num) HVP(Pers, Num), the VP constituent (i.e., the syntactic predicate of a sentence with all… NP (Gen, Num) ® D (Gen, Num) HN (Gen, Num),THE IDEA OF UNIFICATION
The unification algorithms are not linguistic proper. Rather they detect similarities between parts of mathematical structures (strings, trees,… Unification allows filtering out inappropriate feature options, while the… As the first example of unification operations, let us compare feature sets of two Spanish words, el and muchacho,…THE MEANING Û TEXT THEORY: MULTISTAGE TRANSFORMER AND GOVERNMENT PATTERNS
In late 1960´s, a new theory, the Meaning Û Text model of natural languages, was suggested in Russia. For more than 30 years, this… One very important feature of the MTT is considering the language as… The description of valencies for words of any part of speech and of correspondence between the semantic and syntactic…THE MEANING Û TEXT THEORY: DEPENDENCY TREES
For example, the Spanish sentence La estudiante mexicana canta una… Up to the present, the proper description of the word order and word agreement in many languages including Spanish can…THE MEANING Û TEXT THEORY: SEMANTIC LINKS
According to the MTT, the correlation between syntactic and semantic links is not always straightforward. For example, some auxiliary words in a… su ¬ hijo ® Juan, the semantically conditioned element NAME is inserted at the deep syntactic level, directly ruling the personal…CONCLUSIONS
III. PRODUCTS OF COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS: PRESENT AND PROSPECTIVE
Some of these applications already provide the user with satisfactory solutions for their tasks, especially for English, while other tasks and… Of course, some extrapolations of the current trends could give completely new…CLASSIFICATION OF APPLIED LINGUISTIC SYSTEMS
· Text preparation, or text editing, in a broad sense, particularly including the tasks listed below: – Automatic hyphenation of words in natural language texts, – Spell checking, i.e., detection and correction of typographic and spelling errors,AUTOMATIC HYPHENATION
The wrapping can be done only at specific positions within words, which generally, though not always, are syllable boundaries. For example, in… In this way, hyphenation improves the outer appearance of computer-produced… The majority of the well-known text editors are supplied now with hyphenation tools. For example, Microsoft Word has…SPELL CHECKING
Nobody can write without any errors. Even people well acquainted with the rules of language can, just by accident, press a wrong key on the keyboard… First, a spell checker merely detects the strings that are not correct words… After such impossible string has been detected and highlighted by the program, the user can correct this string in any…GRAMMAR CHECKING
Grammar errors are those violating, for example, the syntactic laws or the laws related to the structure of a sentence. In Spanish, one of these… The words that must agree can be located in quite different parts of the… Other types of grammatical errors include incorrect usage of prepositions, like in the phrases *debajo la puerta, or…STYLE CHECKING
This application is the nearest in its tasks to normative grammars and manuals on stylistics in the printed, oriented to humans, form. Thus, style… For example, you are not recommended to use any vulgar words or purely… In the Spanish sentence La recolección de datos en tiempo real es realizada mediante un servidor, the words in…REFERENCES TO WORDS AND WORD COMBINATIONS
Within typical text processors, the synonymy dictionaries are usually called thesauri. Later we will see that this name corresponds poorly to the… References to various words or word combinations of a given natural language…INFORMATION RETRIEVAL
The earliest IRSs were developed to search for scientific articles on a specific topic. Usually, the scientists supply their papers with a set of… These sets of keywords are attached to the document in the bibliographic… Nowadays, a simple but powerful approach to the format of the query is becoming popular in IRSs for non-professional…TOPICAL SUMMARIZATION
Such a task can be viewed as a special kind of summarization: to convey the contents of the document in a shorter form. While in “normal”… As an example, let us consider the system Clasitex™ that automatically determines the main topics of a document. A…AUTOMATIC TRANSLATION
The first programs for automatic, or machine, translation were developed more than 40 years ago. At first, there existed a hope that texts could be… Then the ambitious goal was formulated to create programs which could… At present there is a lot of translation software, ranging from very large international projects being developed by…NATURAL LANGUAGE INTERFACE
Since each database is to some degree specialized, the language of the queries and the set of words used in them are usually very limited. Hence,… There are some quite successful systems with natural language interfaces that… The developers of the most popular database management systems usually supply their product with a formal…EXTRACTION OF FACTUAL DATA FROM TEXTS
The decision-making officials in business and politics are usually too busy to read and comprehend all the relevant news in their available time, so… There are several laboratory systems of that type for business applications,… This kind of problem is also interesting from the scientific and technical point of view. It remains very topical, and…TEXT GENERATION
Another very important application of systems of this kind is the generation of formal specifications in text form from quite formal technical… For example, compilation of a patent formula for a new device, often many… A specific type of such a system is a multilingual text generating system. In many cases, it is necessary to generate…SYSTEMS OF LANGUAGE UNDERSTANDING
For example, automatic translation can be implemented as a text understanding system, which understands the text in the source language and then… Hence, creation of a text understanding system is the most challenging task… To be more precise, the natural language processing module is only one part of such a system. Most activities related…RELATED SYSTEMS
Optical character recognition systems recognize the graphemes, i.e., letters, numbers, and punctuation marks, in a point-by-point image of an… A human being easily reads the following text Reglas de interpretación…CONCLUSIONS
IV. LANGUAGE AS A MEANING Û TEXT TRANSFORMER
IN THIS CHAPTER, we will return to linguistics, to make a review of several viewpoints on natural language, and to select one of them as the base for further studies. The components of the selected approach will be defined, i.e., text and meaning. Then some conceptual properties of the linguistic transformations will be described and an example of these transformations will be given.
POSSIBLE POINTS OF VIEW ON NATURAL LANGUAGE
· The principal means for expressing human thoughts; · The principal means for text generation; · The principal means of human communication.LANGUAGE AS A BI-DIRECTIONAL TRANSFORMER
Thus, people have to use some special physical representation of their… It is important to realize that the communicating persons use the same language, which is their common knowledge, and…TEXT, WHAT IS IT?
Speech is a continuous flow of acoustic signals, just like music or noise. However, linguistics is mainly oriented to the processing of natural… The discrete form of speech supposes dividing the flow of the acoustic signals… For representation of the sound of speech on paper, a special phonetic transcription using phonetic symbols to…MEANING, WHAT IS IT?
In the future, neurophysiological research will eventually discover what signals really correspond to meanings in our brain, and what structure… As it was described earlier, the task of language is to transform information… For a linguistic module of a system, the Meaning is a formal language or a format of information representation…TWO WAYS TO REPRESENT MEANING
· Predicative formulas. Logical predicates are introduced in mathematical logic. In linguistics, they are used in conventional logical notation and… VER(niña, flor) & MUCHO(niña) &DECOMPOSITION AND ATOMIZATION OF MEANING
Thus, the semantic representation of the English sentence The little girls see the red flower it is the same as the one given above, despite the… Nevertheless, the cases when semantic representations for two or more… In natural sciences, such as physics, researchers usually try to divide all the entities under consideration into the…NOT-UNIQUENESS OF MEANING Þ TEXT MAPPING: SYNONYMY
Different texts or their fragments can be, in the opinion of all or the majority of people, equivalent in their meanings. In other words, two or… For example, the Spanish adjectives pequeño and chico are equivalent in… The words equivalent in all possible contexts are called absolute synonyms. Trivial examples of absolute synonymy are…NOT-UNIQUENESS OF TEXT Þ MEANING MAPPING: HOMONYMY
· The Spanish adjective real has two quite different meanings corresponding to the English real and royal. · The Spanish verb querer has three different meanings corresponding to… · The Spanish noun antigüedad has three different meanings:MORE ON HOMONYMY
For formal distinguishing of homonyms, their description in conventional dictionaries is usually divided into several subentries. The names of… The purely lexical homonymy is maybe the most difficult to resolve since at… Concerning similarity of meaning of different lexical homonyms, various situations can be observed in any language. In…MULTISTAGE CHARACTER OF THE MEANING Û TEXT TRANSFORMER
The ambiguity of the Meaning Û Text mapping in both directions, as well as the complicated structure of entities on both ends of the Meaning… Existence of such stages in natural language is acknowledged by many… Two intermediate levels are commonly accepted by all linguists, with small differences in the definitions, namely the…TRANSLATION AS A MULTISTAGE TRANSFORMATION
The task of translation from one natural language to another is a good illustration of multistage transformation of linguistic information. Suppose there is a text in a language A that is to be translated into language… · First stage of analysis starts from the source text in the language A and gives its morphologic representation…TWO SIDES OF A SIGN
· If you see a picture with a stylized image of a man in a wheelchair on the wall in the subway, you know that the place under the image is intended… · Twenty Mexican pesos have two equally possible signifiers: a coin with a… · Raising one’s hand (this gesture is the signifier) can have several different signifieds, for instance: (1) an…LINGUISTIC SIGN
Linguistic signs have several specific properties, the most obvious of which is that they are to be combined together into larger signs and each one… As another property of linguistic sign, its signifier at the surface level… We have already mentioned other notation systems to represent words of natural language, such as hieroglyphic writing.…LINGUISTIC SIGN IN THE MMT
Thus, syntactics of linguistic signs helps to choose one correct sign from a set of synonymous signs, to be used in a specific context. For example,… For the extralinguistic example given above, the classroom is the context, in… Similarly, the presence of the Spanish stem salt- is sufficient to interpret the -as ending as present tense, second…LINGUISTIC SIGN IN HPSG
As to the signified, an object of special type SYNSEM is introduced for it. An… · How to combine this wordform with the other wordforms in the context when forming syntactic structures?ARE SIGNIFIERS GIVEN BY NATURE OR BY CONVENTION?
The proponents of the first point of view argued that some words in any language directly arose from onomatopoeia, or sound imitation. Indeed, we… The opponents of this view objected that only a minority of words in any… The latter point of view has become prevalent, and now nobody looks for material links between the two sides of…GENERATIVE, MTT, AND CONSTRAINT IDEAS IN COMPARISON
Perhaps the most important commonality of the three approaches is that they can be viewed in terms of linguistic signs. All of them describe the… Now, what is to describe a given language? In the view of generative…CONCLUSIONS
The description of the transformation process is greatly simplified by introducing intermediate levels of information representation, of which the… The general definitions of linguistic sign in Meaning Û Text Theory and…V. LINGUISTIC MODELS
Thus, any application needs a description of language, i.e., the knowledge about its main properties. Such knowledge is organized in a model of… Our objectives now are to discuss the problem of modeling in computational…WHAT IS MODELING IN GENERAL?
In the linguistic domain, we need a modeling system that, after receiving information of a linguistic nature in its input, exhibits in its output an…NEUROLINGUISTIC MODELS
It would be interesting to investigate in detail what part of the brain is activated when a human is preparing and producing an utterance or is… The brain of any human consists of a tremendous number of neural cells, or… The dimensions of neurons, dendrites, and axons are so small that the techniques of modern neurophysiology provide no…PSYCHOLINGUISTIC MODELS
Here is an example of a psycholinguistic experiment. The subject, i.e., the person under observation, is given, one by one, a sequence of specially… In another experiment, the objectives can be nearer to linguistics as such.… Psycholinguistics tries also to describe the teaching of native and not native language, social influence of a speech…FUNCTIONAL MODELS OF LANGUAGE
The problem of the cybernetic modeling of natural language is more difficult than in other cases, since there are two such boxes, the analyzing and… A researcher observes the input of the analyzing block and the output of the… The main method of linguistics is to construct a model of natural language, based on the observable input and output…RESEARCH LINGUISTIC MODELS
As an example, we can collect all the agreed pairs like “article—noun” or “noun—adjective,” or all the prepositions occurring in an open, i.e., not… Thus, research models are tools for constructing functional models. They…COMMON FEATURES OF MODERN MODELS OF LANGUAGE
Here are the main common features of all these models: · Functionality of the model. The linguistic models try to reproduce functions… · Opposition of the textual/phonetic form of language to its semantic representation. The manual [9], depicting three…SPECIFIC FEATURES OF THE MEANING Û TEXT MODEL
· Orientation to synthesis. With the announced equivalence of the directions of synthesis and analysis, the synthesis is considered primary and more… · Multilevel character of the model. The model explicitly introduces an… · Reinforced information-preserving character. The rules of correspondence between input and output data for modules…REDUCED MODELS
A holistic model of the language facilitates describing the language as a whole system. However, when we concentrate on the objectives of a specific… Here are some examples of the adequate choice of such a reduced description. … · If we want to build an information retrieval system based on the use of keywords that differ from each other only by…DO WE REALLY NEED LINGUISTIC MODELS?
In modern theoretical linguistics, certain researchers study phonology, the other ones morphology, the third ones syntax, and the fourth ones… The main criteria of truth in theoretical linguistic research are its logical… In this sense, the works of modern specialists in theoretical linguistics seem to be just stages of inner development…ANALOGY IN NATURAL LANGUAGES
The history of any natural language contains numerous cases when a phonologic or morphologic pattern became prevailing and, by analogy, has adduced… An example of analogy in Spanish phonology is the availability of the e before… When Spanish language was developed from Vulgar Latin, all such words had been considered uneasy in their…EMPIRICAL VERSUS RATIONALIST APPROACHES
The empirical approach can be illustrated more easily on the example of the machine translation. A huge bilingual corpus of text is being taken,… It can be seen that such a method unites two types of models given… It is first necessary to determine what is the size of fragments to be compared, what are “nearly equal” places and…LIMITED SCOPE OF THE MODERN LINGUISTIC THEORIES
· Only the problems of morphology and syntax are under intensive elaboration in these theories, whereas semantics is investigated to a significantly… · Modern semantics cannot yet formalize its problems adjacent to pragmatics to… · The results of the recent investigations mainly cover separate sentences, but not discourses. The complicated…CONCLUSIONS
So far, the direct modeling of the brain structures has failed, and several functional models were proposed for the sake of computational… Theoretical approaches provide a solid basis for both holistic and reduced…EXERCISES
THIS SECTION CONTAINS some review questions recommended to the readers to verify their correct understanding of the contents of the book, and the problems recommended for exams.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS can be used to check whether the reader has understood…PROBLEMS RECOMMENDED FOR EXAMS
1. Why automatic natural language processing (NPL) is important for the humankind? A. Because NPL takes decisions in place of humans. B. Because NPL facilitates humans to prepare, to read, and to search through many texts.LITERATURE
IN THIS SECTION we list recommended and additional literature for more profound study of the topic of this book, as well as bibliographic references. The reader is also encouraged to study other publications of the authors of this book, which can be found on www.Gelbukh.com.
RECOMMENDED LITERATURE
2. Cortés García, U., J. Béjar Alonso, A. Moreno Ribas. Inteligencia Artificial. Edicions UPC, Barcelona, 1993. 3. Grishman, R. Computational linguistics. An introduction. Cambridge… 4. Jurafsky, D., J. H. Martin. Speech and Language Processing: An Introduction to Natural Language Processing,…ADDITIONAL LITERATURE
11. Beristáin, Helena. Gramática estructural de la lengua española. UNAM. Limusa Noriega Editores. México, 1996. 12. Chomsky, N. Syntactic Structures. The Hague: Mouton, 1957. 13. Fillmore, C. J. The case for case. In: Bach, E., and B.T. Halms (eds.), Universals in linguistic theory. NY,…GENERAL GRAMMARS AND DICTIONARIES
21. Cuervo, R. J. Diccionario de construcción y régimen de la lengua castellana. Instituto de Cara y Cuervo. Bogotá, 1953. 22. Diccionario De La Lengua. Grupo Anaya. http://www.anaya.es/… 23. Diccionario de la Real Academia Española. Real Academia Española. Edición en CD-ROM,…REFERENCES
35. Beekman, G. “Una mirada a la tecnología del mañana”. En Computación e informática hoy. Addison Wesley… 36. Benveniste, E. Problemas de lingüística general. 7a ed.,… 37. Bolshakov, I. A. “Multifunction thesaurus for Russian word processing”. Proc. of 4th Conference on Applied Natural…APPENDICES
SOME SPANISH-ORIENTED GROUPS AND RESOURCES
Scientific groups and associations · AMPLN, Mexican Association for Natural Language Processing: www.ampln.org. … · SEPLN, Spanish Society for Natural Language Processing: www.sepln.org.– Конец работы –
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