Шпаргалки по лексикологии на английском языке (часть 1)

Affixation and conversion as types of word-building Affixation is one of the most productive ways of word-building throughout the history of English. It consists in adding an affix to the stem of a definite part of speech. Affixation is divided into suffixation and prefixation.There are different classifications of suffixes: 1.Part-of-speech classification: noun-forming(freedom), verb-form.(notify) ,adjective (breathable),adverb(afterward),numeral(s ixty).2.Semantic classification: the agent of the action(dramatist),nationality(English),c ollectivity(friendship),diminutiveness(h orsie),quality(speechlesness),gender(act ress),abstract notion(childhood),derogatory meaning(gangster).3.Lexico-grammatical classification: to a verb stem(mumbling),to a noun stem(roomful),to an adjective stem(longish).4. Etymological classification: native(soften),Romanic(development), Gree k(organise),Russian(filmnik).5. Productivity: productive(singer),semi-productive(skywa rd),non-productive(length).6.Structure:s imple(speaker),compound(formation). Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. Prefixes can be classified according to different principles: 1. Semantic classification: a) prefixes of negative meaning, such as invaluable, nonformals, unfree. b) prefixes denoting repetition or reversal actions, such as: decolonize, revegetation, disconnect, c) prefixes denoting time, space, degree relations, such as : interplanetary hypertension, ex-student), pre-election, overdrugging. 2. Origin of prefixes: a) native (Germanic), such as: un over under- etc. b) Romanic, such as : in de ex re- etc. c) Greek, such as : sym hyper- etc. Conversion is process of coining a new word with different distribution characteristics without adding any derivative element, so that the basic form of the original and the basic form of derived word are homonymous.

E.g.: to find - a find. 1.Verbs from nouns: instrumental meaning(to hammer),animal-like behaviour(to ape),actions connected with parts of body(to finger),professional activity(to maid), putting smth. into some container(to bottle) etc. 2.Instance of an action(a move),agent of an action(a bore),place of an action(a walk),result of an action(a cut).3.verbs from adj.(to pale).4.Nouns from adj.(a final).5.Other types( the ups and downs). Etymological adaptation and types of loan words.

By the Indo-European element are meant words of roots common to all (or most) languages of the Indo-European group.

The words of this group denote elementary concepts without which no human communication would be possible.

The following groups can be identified.1.Family relations: father, mother, brother, son, daughter.2.Parts of the human body: foot, nose, lip, heart.3.Animals: cow, swine, goose.4.Plants: tree, birch, corn.5.Time of day: day, night.6.Heavenly bodies: sun, moon, star. Numerous adjectives: red, new, glad, sad 7.The numerals from one to a hundred.8.Pronouns - personal (except “they” which is a Scandinavian borrowing) and demonstrative.9.Numerous verbs: be, stand, sit, eat, know. The Germanic element represents words of roots common to all or most Germanic languages.

Some of the main groups of Germanic words are the same as in the Indo-European element.1.Parts of the human body: head, hand, arm, finger, bone.2.Animals: bear, fox, calf.3.Plants: oak, fir, grass.4.Natural phenomena: rain, frost.5.Seasons of the year: winter, spring, summer.6.Landscape features: sea, land.7.Human dwellings and furniture: house, room, bench 8.Sea-going vessels: boat, ship.9.Adjectives: green, blue, grey, white, small, thick, high, old, good.10.Verbs: see, hear, speak, tell, say, answer, make, give, drink.

The English proper element is opposed to the first two groups.

For not only it can be approximately dated, but these words have another distinctive feature: they are specifically English have no cognates in other languages whereas for Indo-European and Germanic words such cognates can always be found, as, for instance, for the following words of the Indo-European group.

Words: bird, boy, girl, lord, lady, woman, daisy, always.Latin affixes of nouns:The suffix (-ion): legion, opinion, etc.; the suffix (-tion): relation, temptation, etc. Latin affixes of verbs: The suffix (-ate): appreciate, create, congratulate, etc.; the suffix (-ute): attribute, distribute, etc.; the remnant suffix (-ct): act, collect, conduct, etc.; the prefix (dis-): disable, disagree, etc. Loanwords are words adopted by the speakers of one language from a different language (the source language). A loanword can also be called a borrowing.

Source of borrowings is appliede to the lang from which particular words were taken into Engl. Original borrowings the term is applied to the language the word may be traced to. Assimilation - the process of the changing of the adopted words.

A. of thr borrowings includes changes in: sound form; morphological strct; grammar charact-s; usage. Completely assimilated borrowings - are the words which have undergone all types of Assimilation.

They are active in word formation.Partially assim-d b the words which lack one of the types of A. They are subdivided into: borrow. not ass-d grammatically (nouns borrowed from Latin or Greek); borrow. not ass-d phonetically (contain peculiarities in stress, not standard for English); barbarisms - words from other lang used by English people in conversations or writing, but not assimilated in any way.Types of borrowed words: Romanic- Latin(altar),french(money),italian(lava) ; Germanic-scandinavian(sky),German(iceber g),Dutch(dock);Others- Greek(phantom),Celtic(cradle),Russian(ni hilist) etc. Etymological doublets: 1-one word is native,the other is borrowed(screw-shrew); 2-both words are borrowed from different co-generic languages(senior-sir); 3-From the same language but in diff. periods(hostel-hotel).4-both are native, but one originates from the other(defence-fence). International words: Sciences( philisophy),artistic(music),sport terms(hochey),foodstuff(banana).