КУРС ЛЕКЦИЙ ЧАСТЬ 1 специальности I-020306-01 Английский язык

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ РЕСПУБЛИКИ БЕЛАРУСЬ

Учреждение образования

"Гомельский государственный университет

имени Франциска Скорины"

 

Л.Д. АКУЛИЧ

 

 

СТРАНОВЕДЕНИЕ ВЕЛИКОБРИТАНИИ

КУРС ЛЕКЦИЙ ЧАСТЬ 1

Для студентов

специальности I-020306-01 “Английский язык”

 

 

Гомель 2005

УДК 802. 0 (075. 8)

ББК 81. 432. 1 – 923. 5

Рецензенты:

Л.С. Банникова, доцент, кандидат педагогических наук

C.И. Сокорева,доцент, кандидат педагогических наук

 

 

Рекомендовано к изданию научно-методическим советом учреждения образования “Гомельский государственный университет имени Франциска Скорины” “____”_______ 2005 г., протокол № __

 

Акулич Л.Д.

    Настоящий курс лекций представляет собой систематическое изложение широкого круга вопросов, входящих в систему…

Position, Territory and Structure

Britain, formally known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, constitutes the greater part of the islands. It comprises the… The United Kingdom's area is some 244,100 square km, of which about; 99 per… With nearly 59 million people, Great Britain ranks about fourteenth in the world in terms of population. The high…

Surrounding Seas and Coastline

It seems probable that the last glacial advance was at its maximum about 20,000 years ago. Since then a general warmingofthe climate has caused the… Around the coasts of north-west Europe the land slopes gently down into the… The zone of shallow water whichat present surrounds the continent thus resembles a shelf above the really deep…

Physical Structure and Relief. Highland and

Lowland Britain.

Highland Britain.

Britain has a great diversity of physical characteristics and, despite its small area, contains rocks of nearly all the main geological periods. There is a contrast between the genera­lly high relief of western and northern Britain and the lowland areas of the south and east. In general, the oldest rocks appear in the highland regions and the youngest in the lowland regions.

 

England.

Across the north end of the Pennine Range there are the grassy Cheviot Hills. The highest point is The Cheviot (816 m), near the Scottish border.… In north-weste England, separated from the Pennines by the valley of the river… The valleys which separate the various mountains from each other contain some beautiful lakes ( Windermere, Grasmere,…

Wales.

Wales is the largest of the peninsulas on the westernside of Britain. It consistsof a complex of worn down mountain ranges, representing high plateaux. They are called the Cambrian mountains. The highest and most glaciated area occurs in the north, especially around Snowdon (1,085 m), and often the mountains approach close to the sea.

The Cambrians largely comprise the upland areas, generally and collectively described as the Welsh Massif. In the south the massif includes an important coal-field, on whichan industrial area has grown. It is the most densely populated part of Wales with some two-thirds of the total population of 2.8 million inhabiting about one-eighth of the area. Two relief divisions may be distinguished in South Wales: a coastal plain whichinthe south-eastern part around Cardiff becomes up to 16 km wide, and the upland areas of the coalfield proper, which rise between 245 and 380 metres. In recent years the region has experienced very acute problems with the decline in the coal industry and high unemployment rates.

Much of the remainder of Wales consits of bare rock, barren moorland and rough pasture, with only a few people to the square kilometre. But this region constitutes the heartland of Wales, for centered upon the massif is the Welsh culture where the traditions and language of a Celtic people are best preserv­ed.

In the upland areas sheep are the basis of the rural economy, and in the low-lying parts near the coast andin the valley bottoms dairy farming predominates.

 

Scotland. .

Scotland may be divided into three major physical regions: the Highlands, the Southern Uplands and the Central Lowlands.

The Scottish Highlands lie west of a line from Aberdeen to the mouth of the Clyde. They form the most extensive and the most sparsely populated of the three regions. The mountains are separated into two parts by Glen More, or the Great Glen, a long crack in the earth's crust, running from north-east to south-west. To the south are the Grampians, which are generally higher than the North-west highlands, and contain the loftiest summits, including Ben Nevis (1,347 m), the highest peak in the British lsles, and Ben Macdhui (1,309 m). They have also been more deeply cut by the action of glaciers and rivers. Glen More contains three lakes: Loch Ness, Loch Oich and Loch Lochy, and the first is said to be the home of a "monster". In the early nineteenth century the lochs were joined to form the Caledo­nian Canal which was equipped with 29 lochs and was almost 100 km in total length. Along the west coast the highlandsrise quite abruptly from sea level, so that westward-flowing rivers are short and swift. Rivers which flow generally east, such as the Tay and the Dee, have a relatively long course.

Climatically the region has some of the most severe weather experienced in Britain. The highly dissected nature of the landscape means that there are considerable local variations in climate over quite small distances and these variations are important.

The Highlands comprise forty-seven per cent of the land area of Scotland. At the same time, they house less than fifteen per cent of the Scottish population. The population is largely concentrated on the periphery of the massif, and nowhere else in Britain are the problems of depopulation and economic decline seen so clearly.

The economy of the region has traditionally been that of crofting, subsistent farming, in which the farmer (crofter) and his family consume all the produce. The crofter grows crops on a patch of land near his cottage, the main crops being potatoes, oats and hay. His sheep graze on the nearby hill slopes, and be may have one or two cows, to keep the family supplied with milk and some poultry.

The Southern Uplands extend from the Central Valleyof Scotland in the north to the Pennine Hills and Lake District in the South. Although for the most part an upland area, the boundaries of the region are not clear-cut in physical terms. The Cheviot Hills, composed largely of volcanic rocks, mark the central part of the boundary between England and Scotland. Upland areas extend into the Central Valley, just as the Cheviots merge into the Pennines and the lowlands on both east and west coasts merge into the lowlands of Northumbria and those that surround the dome of the Lake Distrist.

These uplands form a plateau, which glaciation has eroded into smooth, rounded hills. The general level of this plateau-like surface descends from the higher northern margins in a series of steps. The hills ries to 800-900 m, but for the most part they lie between 450 and 610 metres.

The present-day economy of the region is dominated by agriculture. The region is clearly divided between the sheep pastures of the uplands and the more diversified farming areas of the lowlands. Sheep have been grazed on the uplands for the past six centuries and hard local breeds, such as Cheviot and Black-face have been developed which can withstand the snows of winter and produce excellent mutton as well as wool.

Throughout the uplands population distribution is sparse and limited to isolated farmsteads and occasional villages and towns usually clustered in the valleys on the periphery of the uplands, particularly in Galloway, the name is given to the dales and lowlands of the south-west, and in the Tweed Basin.

The Central Lowlands of Scotland, sometimes known as the Midland Valley, lie between the Highland and the Southern Uplands. For the most part this region is a lower-lying north- east to south-west trendingare some eighty kilometres or so wide.

The Central Lowlands are by far the most densely popula­ted of the three main regions of Scotland: they occupy about 15 per cent of its area, but contain about 80 per cent of its people.

Many of the people who left the highlands during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries settled in the Central Lowlands, particularly in the Glasgow region where industrial development as taking place at a rapid rate. The area was one of the major industrial centres of Britain, with important coal, steel, ship­building and engineering industries. The twentieth century has seen increasing problems in these industries and there has been a movement of population from the area.

On the fertile sandy soils in the south-west the farmers grow early potatoes. They also cultivate oats and in the shelter­ed Clyde Valley many are engaged in fruit growing and market gardening. Throughout the region sheep are reared on the hills.

 

Ireland.

The Central Plain of Ireland stretches west-east across the country from coast to coast. Glacial action has created hollows, enlarged by solution of… Around the plain is a broken rim of mountains. In the extreme north-east is… Being geographically an island and a single unit, Ireland is politically divided into the Irish Free State and…

Lowland Britain

Another important plain in Britain is the London Basin in South East England. The master stream of the basin is Britain's second longest river, the… The geographical region described as the Lancashire and Cheshire Plain,… The chief characteristic of East Anglia is its low relief with few hills, the area is mainly founded on chalk.

Rivers and Lakes.

In the Middle Ages, river transport played a majorrole in the British internal transport system, and all the large towns of the time were situated… The drainage map of the British Isles seems to containno very clear pattern.… A number of streams flow down to the west coast, to the Irish Sea, including the Clyde in Scotland, the Eden, Ribble,…

Climate and Weather

The position of the British Isles within latitudes 50° to 6I°N is a basic factor in determining the main characteristics of the climate. Within the… The climate of any place results from the interaction of a number of… Britain has agenerally mild and temperate climate, which is dominated by marine influences and is rainy and equable.…

Temperature

Near sea level in the west the mean annual temperature ranges from 8°C in the Hebrides to 11°C in the extreme south-west of England. July and August… The mean monthly temperature in the extreme north (the Shetlands) ranges from… During a normal summer the temperature may occasionally riseabove 30°Cin the south. The highestshade…

Weather

Spring is normally Britain's driest season, even though April is by tradition showery. Cold weather usually lasts no later than mid-April, and there… June is the brightest month of the year for Britain in general. Rainfall tends… North and north-west winds often bring heavy falls of snow to north Britain during late October and November, but they…

Vegetation

With its mild climate, a wide variety of relief and soils Britain once had a diverse pattern of vegetation. The original natural vegetation… Over the centuries, however, the forests have had to make way for agriculture… Apart from oak other trees of the wooded lowlands were ash, maple, elm and hazel. Today only a few scattered areas of…

BRITAIN'S PREHISTORY

The Ice Age was not just one long equally cold period. There were warmer times when the ice cap retreated, and colder periods when the ice cap… However, the ice advanced again and Britain became hardly habitable until… Around 10,000 BC, as the Ice Age drew to a close, Britain was peopled by small groups of hunters, gatherers and…

The Celts

The Celts are important in British history because they are the ancestors of many of the people in Highland Scotland, Wales, Ireland, and Cornwall… Our knowledge of the Celts is slight. As with previous groups of settlers, we… The last Celtic arrivals from Europe were the Belgic tribes. It was natural for them to settle in the southeast of…

The Romans

The Romans had invaded because the Celts of Britain were working with the Celts of Gaul against them. The British Celts were giving them food, and… The Romans brought the skills of reading and writing to Britain. The written… Julius Caesar first came to Britain in 55 bc, but it was not until almost a century later, in ad 43, that a Roman army…

Roman life

The Romans left about twenty large towns of about 5,000 inhabitants, and almost one hundred smaller ones. Many of these towns were at first army… Outside the towns, the biggest change during the Roman occupation was the… In some ways life in Roman Britain seems very civilised, but it was also hard for all except the richest. The bodies…

Who should be king?

When Ethelred died Cnut (or Canute), the leader of the Danish Vikings, controlled much of England. He became king for the simple reason that the… Edward, known as "the Confessor", was more interested in the Church… Edward only lived until 1066, when he died without an obvious heir. The question of who should follow him as king was…

Scotland

Scotland was populated by four separate groups of people. The main group, the Picts, lived mostly in the north and northeast. They spoke Celtic as… The non- Pictish inhabitants were mainly Scots. The Scots were Celtic settlers… In 843 the Pictish and Scottish kingdoms were united a Scottish king, who could also probably claim the Pictish throne…

The Norman Conquest

Although William was now crowned king, his conquest had only just begun, and the fighting lasted for another five years. There was an Anglo-Saxon… Few Saxon lords kept their lands and those who did were the very small number…  

Feudalism

William organised his English kingdom according to the feudal system which had already begun to develop in England before his arrival. The word… There were two basic principles to feudalism: every man had a lord, and every… When a noble died his son usually took over his estate. But first he had to receive permission from the king and make…

Geographical context

• the prehistoric cultures which produced such impressive monuments as the stone circles of Avebury and Stonehenge; • the ancient Celtic peoples who inhabited western and central Europe; • the Romans who occupied Britain for over 300 years from the invasion in AD 43;

Roman rule

Roman rule was very influential in Britain's evolution, not least in the founding of towns and cities so many of which are familiar to the people today. For example, London and Lincoln largely preserve their Roman names - Londinium and Lindum Colonia respectively - while others, such as Chester, Gloucester and Colchester, betray their origins by the '-chester' or '-cester' ending. This name, derived from the Latin castra, was givento the Roman sites by the Anglo-Saxons.

 

Spread of Christianity

Christianity-which had been introduced to Britain under the Romans — was reintroduced to pagan England in the sixth and seventh centuries. The Catholic Church sent St Augustine to preach and establish in 597. Since that time, Christianity has remained the predominant faith among people in Britain.

 

Reign of Alfred the Great

During the ninth century Vikings from Scandinavia overran all these kingdoms except Wessex, where Alfred the Great, who reigned. from 871 to 899,…  

Norman Conquest of England

  Magna Carta and the beginnings of Parliament In 1215 King John signed Magna Carta (Great Charter) in the face of demands by barons. It secured feudal rights and…

The English Reformation

Popular hostility to the Papacy remained widespread for centuries. In Ireland, differences between the religious traditions remain very marked to…  

Union of England and Wales

  Civil War and the execution of Charles I Hostility between Parliament and the Crown led to the outbreak of civil war in 1642. The eventual victory of the…

The Glorious Revolution and Bill of Rights

  Union of England and Scotland Scotland remained a separate kingdom throughout the Middle Ages, often at war with England. Realising the benefits of…

The Industrial Revolution

Transport was revolutionised in this period, with the construction of a wide network of canals in the late 18th century, many of which are still in… Although slums developed in many of the emerging industrial towns, some of the…  

Partition of Ireland

Between 1922 and 1972 Northern Ireland was governed by a Parliament responsible for a range of local affairs. Following an upsurge in intercommunal… As a result of multi-party talks which began in June 1996, the Belfast…  

The end of Empire

 

Britain in Europe

Out of the consequent negotiations emerged what is now termed the European Union - an association of sovereign nations, initially comprising six…   QUESTIONS:

Language variation

About one-fifth of the population of Wales speak the Welsh language, which is of Celtic origin. They are concentrated in the rural north and west,… Gaelic, also a language of Celtic origin, is still spoken by some 70,000… Many other languages are spoken by the minority ethnic communities living in Britain.

Demographic trends

The population density is well above the European Union average. England is the most densely populated, with 373 people per sq km, and Scotland the… In 1997 there were 726,000 live births in Britain, compared with 633,000… The average age of women having children has risen to over 28 years in England and Wales. There is also a greater…

Elderly people

Most elderly people in Britain live healthy and independent lives. Nearly all want to be a part of the community, living in their own homes. Many… Yet a lot of older people - perhaps living alone, in poor health or disabled… Services for elderly people are designed to help them live at home whenever possible. In fact, only about 5 per cent…

Young people

After the home, school is the main social environment where children not only receive their formal education but also develop their identities… The personal development and informal social education of young people aged… Youth clubs and centres are the most common types of Youth Service provision, encouraging their members to participate…

Age and Sex Structure

· 20.2 per cent under 16 years of age; · 64.1 per cent between 16 and 64 years; and · 15.7 per cent aged 65 and over.

Distribution of Population

 

Women

The economic and domestic lives of women have been transformed in the twentieth century. These changes are due partly to the removal of much of sex discrimination in political and legal rights. At the heart of women's changed role has been the rise in the number of women, especially married women, at work. With later marriages and the availability of effective contraception there has been a decline in family size. Women are involved in childbearing for a shorter time and this, together with technological advances which have made housework less onerous and time-consuming, has made it easier for women with children to combine child-rearing with paid employment. The growth of part-time and flexible working patterns, and training schemes, allows more women to take advantage of employment opportunities.

Women make up more than two-fifths of the workforce. The proportion of married women working outside the home has increased to two-thirds of those between the ages of 16 and 59, a quarter of the total labour force compared with only 4 per cent in 1921. Married women are most likely to be in full-time work if they are aged 16 to 29 with no children. Over two-fifths of all women in employment work part-time, representing almost nine-tenths of all part-time workers. By the mid-1990s the numbers of young people entering the labour market has declined substantially and it the resulting shortfall in the labour force is met to a considerable extent by the recruitment of more married women.

There is still a significant difference between men's and women's earnings, but equal pay legislation which came into force in 1975 has helped to narrow the gap; in 1990 women's average hourly earnings were only 77 per cent of men's, despite a progressive rise in women's hourly rates over the last three years. Women's wages remain relatively low because they tend to work in the lower-paid sector of the economy and work fewer hours than men because of their domestic commitments. A major reform in the taxation of women came into effect in 1990, when their earnings began to be taxed separately rather than being treated as part of their husbands' income for tax purposes.

 

Equal Opportunities

The Equal Opportunities Commission, set up in 1975 (1976 in Northern Ireland under separate laws), has powers to enforce the Sex Discrimination and…  

Ethnic and National Minorities

The Irish have long formed a large section of the population. Jewish refugees who came to Britain towards the end of the nineteenth century and in… In 1989-91, according to the results of a sample survey, the average ethnic… The sample survey also indicated that the proportion of men of working age in Great Britain who were economically…

Alleviating Racial Disadvantage

Many individuals have achieved distinction in their careers and in public life and the proportion of ethnic minority members occupying professional… The principal means of combating disadvantage is through the economic,… The Government is encouraging the development of black businesses in inner city areas through the Ethnic Minority…

Ethnic Minorities and the Police

Police training in race relations has received particular attention. A specialist unit, launched in 1989 and run by an independent company, provides… Campaigns are run by the police to encourage the recruitment of officers from…  

Race Relations Act 1976

It is a criminal offence to incite racial hatred under the provisions of the Public Order Act 1986.  

Commission for Racial Equality

The Commission supports the work of over 80 race equality councils, which are autonomous voluntary bodies set up in most areas with a significant…  

Living standards

Earnings from employment remain the main source of household income for most people, although other sources such as private pensions and annuities… Average weekly household spending in Britain is about ₤311. Food and…  

Housing

Owner-occupation more than doubled between 1961 and 1997. The number of owner-occupied homes amounts to over 14 million in England. Most people buy… There are some 3.6 million houses and flats in the public housing sector. Most… Housing associations, which are non-profit-making, are now the main providers of additional low-cost housing for rent…

Leisure trends

Watching television is by far the most popular leisure pastime. Nearly every household has a television set, and average viewing time is over 25… Other regular pastimes include listening to the radio and to recorder music.… Many people in their spare time enjoy reading (over 50 per cent belong to a library), gardening, do-it-yourself home…

Holidays

Of the major free seaside attractions, the most frequented were Blackpool Pleasure Beach in Lancashire (with an estimated 7.8 million visitors), the… The most popular destinations for overseas holidays by British residents are…  

Eating and drinking habits

Consumption of several items, such as packet sugar, eggs, potatoes and fresh green vegetables, has declined substantially. An increase in the… Britain has a wide range of restaurants, offering cuisine from virtually every… There has been an increase in recent years in the amount of alcohol that people drink, particularly among women. Beer,…

Political Institution

However, the roles of the political institutions are still vigorously debated in contemporary Britain. Governments are frequently accused of being…  

Political history

These developments encouraged the establishment of basic parliamentary structures against royal power. In 1265 Simon de Montfort called England's… Although these early development did give Parliament some limited powers… Parliament began to show more resistance to the monarchy under the Stuart succession from 1603 by using its gradually…

The constitutional framework

Since Parliament is for most purposes still the supreme legislative authority, save for some European Community legislation law and institutions can… This somewhat haphazard constitutional system, which is largely dependent upon… But the system has been increasingly criticized in recent years. Governments have become more radical in their…

The monarchy

The monarch has a number of roles, and serves formally as head of state head of the executive head of the judiciary head of the legislature… In spite of these roles, there are difficulties in defining the precise powers… However, for all practical purposes and since the old executive royal authority has been virtually abolished, the…

The Privy Council

Today its main role is to advise the monarch on a range of matters, like the resolution of constitutional issues and the approval of Orders in… Cabinet ministers automatically become memberson taking government office.… Apart from its practical duties and its role as a constitutional forum for experienced people, perhaps the most…

Parliament

In pursuing these powers, Parliament is supposed to legislate according to the rule of law, precedent and tradition. Politicians are generally… Parliament consists of the House of Lords, the HouseofCommons and formally the… A Parliament has a maximum duration of five years, but it is often dissolved and a general election called before the…

The government

The Prime Minister, who is appointed by the monarch and is normally the leader of the majority party in the Commons, possesses a great deal of… The Prime Minister consequently has great power within the British system of… The Cabinet is normally composed of up to twenty senior ministers from the government, who are chosen and presided…

Local government

The system of local government is very similar to the system of national government. There are elected representatives, called councillors (the… Most British people have far more direct dealings with local government than… Local councils are allowed to collect one kind of tax. This is a tax based on property. (All other kinds are collected…

Local government services

Public libraries are another well-known service. Anybody can go into one of these to consult the books, newspapers and magazines there free of… Counties are the oldest divisions of the country in England and Wales. Most of… Boroughswere originally towns that had grown large and important enough to be given their own government, free of…

The Structure of Trade and Industry

The most important industrial developments in the past 20 years or so in Britain have been the exploitation of North Sea oil and gas, and the rapid… Britain, the world's fifth largest trading nation, belongs to the European…  

The Structure of trade and industry

British industry performed poorly during the decades following the Second World War (some people blamed this on the above characteristics). In… As in all European countries, the economic system in Britain is a mixture of… From 1980 the trend started going in the other direction. A major part of the philosophy of the Conservative…

The decline of the unions

 

How Industry is Organised

Manufacturing accounted for 22 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP) in 1993 and for about the same percentage of employment. About 82 per cent… The construction industry contributed 5 per cent of GDP and employment about…  

Industry in Action

Chemicals

Many major chemical companies in Britain are multinationals; several are subsidiaries of overseas companies and others are specialist manufacturers… A large proportion of world R & D in agrochemicals is conducted in…

Pharmaceuticals

The industry is made up of about 360 companies of all sizes. A small number of very big firms dominate production - the six largest are Glaxo,… The industry manufactures the whole range of medicines - human and veterinary… Discoveries by the industry include semi-synthetics and treatments for asthma, coronary heart disease and certain…

Mechanical Engineering

Britain is among the world's major producers of tractors, which make up over three-quarters of total output of agricultural equipment. Sales of the… Britain is the world's eighth largest producer of machine tools with total… Most sales of textile machinery are to export markets. British innovations include computerised colour matching and…

Electronics

Britain makes 40 per cent of Europe's desktop computers. Nearly half of these computers and peripheral equipment intended for export are made in… Another sector of the industry manufactures radio communications equipment,…

Offshore Industry

Around 34,000 people are employed offshore, while a further 250,000 work in support industries - building oil rigs, designing platforms and… Output of crude oil and natural gas liquids in Britain average just over 2…  

Food and Drink

Frozen and prepared children foods, annual sales of which stand at over ₤3,600 million and ₤1,800 million respectively, other… Of major significance among alcoholic drinks produced in Britain in Scotch… The soft drinks industry is the fastest-growing sector of the grocery trade, with an annual turnover of about…

Aerospace

British Aerospace is one of the world's top defence companies and more than four-fifth of its military production was exported in 1993. It includes… Rolls-Royce is one of the world's three major manufacturers of aero-engines,… Over 400 companies in Britain are engaged in space activities. The industry is strong in the manufacture of satellites…

Financial Services

Financial institutions' net overseas earnings amounted to ₤15,600 million in 1993. Banking, finance and insurance accounted for 13 per cent of… Historically the financial services industry has been located in the 'Square… · the greatest concentration of foreign banks - 286 - in the world;

Tourism

Between 1980 and 1990 the number of overseas visits to Britain increased by 50 per cent. In 1993 over 19 million overseas visitors came to Britain,… Domestic tourism was valued at ₤12,400 million in 1992. Around one-half… The largest hotel business in Britain is Forte, which has 344 hotels in the country. At the other end of the scale,…

Overseas Trade

On 1 January 1994 the EU implemented an agreement with Austria, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden on the creation of the European Economic Area… In 1993 Britain's exports of goods were valued at about ₤121,400 million… Britain's overseas trade is mainly, and increasingly, with developed countries. In 1972, the year before Britain…

Agriculture

Nearly 80 per cent of the land area is used for agriculture, the rest being mountain and forest or put to urban and other uses. Although the area… There are about 243,500 farming units, of which about a half are able to…   Size of Farms (as a Percentage of Total Number of Farms) Under   …

Education

 

Historical background

Schools and other educational institutions (such as universities) existed in Britain long before the government began to take an interest in…

The public schools system

· are for boys only from the age of thirteen onwards, most of whom attended a private 'prep' (= preparatory) school beforehand; · take fee-paying pupils (and some scholarship pupils who have won a place in… · are boarding schools (the boys live there during term-time);

Organization

None of these central authorities exercises much control over the details of what actually happens in the country's educational institutions. All… Central government does not prescribe a detailed programme of learning or… One of the reasons for this level of 'grass-roots' independence is that the system has been influenced by the…

Style

Learning for its own sake, rather than for any particular practical purpose, has traditionally been given a comparatively high value in Britain. In comparison with most other countries, a relatively strong emphasis has been put on the quality of person that education produces (as opposed to the qualities of abilities that it produces). The balance has changed in the last quarter of the twentieth century (for example, there is now a high degree of concern about levels of literacy), but much of the public debate about educational policy still focuses not so much on how to help people develop useful knowledge and skills as on how education might help to bring about a better society - on social justice rather than on efficiency.

This approach has had a far-reaching effect on many aspects of the educational system. First of all, it has influenced the general style of teaching, which has tended to give priority to developing understanding rather than acquiring factual knowledge and learning to apply this knowledge to specific tasks. This is why British young people do not appear to have to work as hard as their counterparts in other European countries. Primary schoolchildren do not normally have formal homework to do and university students have fewer hours of programmed attendance than students on the continent do. (On the other hand, they receive greater personal guidance with their work). A second effect has been an emphasis on academic ability rather than practical ability (despite English anti-intellectualism). This has resulted in high-quality education for the intelligent and academically inclined (at the upper secondary and university levels) with comparatively little attention given to the educational needs of the rest.

The traditional approach, together with the dislike of centralized authority, also helps to explain why the British school system got a national curriculum (a national specification of learning objectives) so much later than other European countries. If your aim is so vague and universal, it is difficult to specify what its elements are. It is for the same reason that British schools and universities have tended to give such a high priority to sport. The idea is that it helps to develop the 'complete' person. The importance of school as a 'community' can increase this emphasis. Sporting success enhances the reputation of an institution. Until the last quarter of the twentieth century, certain sports at some universities (especially Oxford and Cambridge) and medical schools were played to an international standard. People with poor academic records were sometimes accepted as students because of their sporting powers (although, unlike in the USA, this practice was always unofficial).

Recent developments

In other cases the changes have been the result of government policy. Before 1965 most children in the country had to take an exam at about the age… However, the comprehensive system has also had its critics. Many people felt… Starting in the late 1980s, two major changes were introduces by the government. The first of these was the setting up…

Which subjects do pupils have to study?

The National Curriculum is divided into four stages. These are called key stages and depend on pupil's ages. Pupils going into Key Stage 4 before… Schools organise their own timetable, and can decide what else to teach their…  

How does the National Curriculum work?

Most National Curriculum subject are divided into different areas of learning. For example, English is divided into three areas: speaking and… The National Curriculum does not include detailed lesson plans for teachers.…  

How is each pupil's progress assessed?

· The standards at level 2 should challenge typical 7-year-olds · The standards at level 4 should challenge typical 11-year-olds · The standards at levels 5 and 6 should challenge typical 14-year-olds

Do pupils have to sit national tests and examinations?

Most 16-year-old take GCSEs or similar qualifications. One final point about the persistence of decentralization: there are really… The introduction of the national curriculum is also intended to have an influence on the subject-matter of teaching.…

School life

Nearly all schools work a five-day week, with no half-day, and are closed on Saturdays. The day starts at or just before nine o'clock and finishes… Methods of teaching vary, but there is most commonly a balance between formal…

The school year

  Autumn term Christmas holiday (about 2 weeks) Spring term Easter holiday (about 2 weeks) Summer…   In addition, all schools have a 'half-term' (= half-term holiday), lasting a few days or week in the middle of each…

Public exams

Second, the boards publish a separate syllabus for each subject. There is no unified school-leaving exam or school-leaving certificate. Some boards… Third, the exams have nothing to do with school years as such. They are… An example of the independence of the examining boards is the decision of one of them (the Northern Examinations…

Education beyond sixteen

 

Exams and qualifications

There has been a great increase in educational opportunities for people at this age or older in the last quarter of the twentieth century. About…

The sixth form

An increasing number do vocational training courses for particular jobs and careers. Recent governments have been keen to increase the availability… The independence of Britain's educational institutions is most noticeable in… The availability of higher education has increased greatly in the second half of the twentieth century. Nevertheless,…

Types of university

· Oxbridge This name denotes the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, both founded in… · The old Scottish Universities

The Open Universities

  QUESTIONS: 1. What is the compulsory school age in Britain?

УЧЕБНОЕ ИЗДАНИЕ

АКУЛИЧ Людмила Давыдовна

СТРАНОВЕДЕНИЕ ВЕЛИКОБРИТАНИИ

КУРС ЛЕКЦИЙ ЧАСТЬ 1

Для студентов специальности I-020306-01 “Английский язык”