Теоретическая фонетика английского языка

С.Ф. Леонтьева

Теоретическая фонетика английского языка

ИЗДАНИЕ ВТОРОЕ, ■ИСПРАВЛЕННОЕ И ДОПОЛНЕННОЕ

Допущено

Министерством просвещения СССР

в качества учебника дпя студентов

.вечернего и заочного отделений

МОСКВА «ВЫСШАЯ ШКОЛА» 1988

педвузов

ВИС 81.2 Англ=923

Л 47

Рецензент: кафедра английского языка Тульского государствен­ного педагогического института им. Л. Н. Толстого (зав. кафедрой д-р филол. наук проф. В. Я. Плоткин)

Леонтьева С. Ф.

Л 47 Теоретическая фонетика английского языка: Учеб. для студентов вечер, и заоч. отд-ний педвузов.—2-е изд., испр. и доп.—М.: Высш. шк., 1988.—271 с, ил.

На обл, загл.: S. F. Leontyeva. A Theoretical Course of English Phonetics.

Основы теоретической фонетики изложены в учебнике кратко и в доступной форме. Вопросы к каждому разделу, упражнения, контрольные задания, ключ дают возможность овладеть материалом самостоятельно. Таблицы, схемы, рисунки обес­печивают наглядность учебного материала. В конце учебника дан словарь фонети­ческих терминов. Учебник написан ка английском языке.

_п 4602010000 (4309000000)-038 _r._t „ _м .„ БВК 81.2 Англ-923

^Л-------- 00U0D-88------------------- КВ-5-36-87 ₄И (Англ)

© Издательство «Высшая школа», 1Ш © Издательство «Высшая школа»,

■ ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ

Учебник является вторым изданием теоретического курса фонетики анг­лийского языка для студентов вечернего к. заочного отделений педагогиче­ских институтов, опубликованного в 1980 году.

В переработанном и дополненном тексте -учебника учтены замечания, сделанные в адрес первого издания, использованы новые материалы по теоретической и практической фонетике, выпущенные в последние годы.

Цель учебника — помочь студентам — будущим учителям общеобра­зовательных школ овладеть основами теории фонетики для улучшения навыков владения речью, для более качественной их подготовки к прак­тической работе в школе в качестве учителей английского языка.

При составлении учебника автор руководствовался требованиями, изложенными в программе по теоретическому курсу фонетики английского языка:

1. Ознакомить студентов с современным состоянием науки о фонети­
ческом строе английского языка, обобщить и углубить знания по фонетике,
полученные студентами при изучении нормативного курса, развить у них
способность делать самостоятельные практические выводы из наблюдений
«ад теоретическим материалом.

2. Научить студентов применять теоретические положения курса в
преподавании английского языка. Это касается, например, таких вопросов,
как выбор учебной нормы произношения, транскрибирование, типы произ­
носительных ошибок, применение результатов фонологического анализа
при обучении произношению и др.

Задача учебника — систематизировать элементы фонетической теории и дать на этой основе более полные знания о всех компонентах фонетиче­ского строя современного английского языка в их системе и в сопостав­лении с фонетическим строем родного языка.

Учебник включает в себя десять разделов. Объем каждого раздела оп­ределяется спецификой материала. Особое внимание уделяется описанию звуков речи: разделы И, III, IV, V.

Каждый из десяти разделов состоит из четырех частей: 1) теоретической части; 2) вопросов; 3) упражнений; 4) контрольных заданий.

Материал учебника иллюстрируется рисунками, схемами и таблицами, которые объясняют механизм артикуляции и способствуют лучшему пони­манию и усвоению английского произношения-

В учебнике имеется словарь фонетических терминов и ключ к наиболее трудным упражнениям (они помечены звездочкой), что необходимо для самостоятельного изучения предмета.

Методические рекомендации

Теоретический материал дан в учебнике в минимальном объеме. При подготовке к подробному обсуждению отдельных тем следует рекомендовать дополнительную литературу, указанную в библиографическом списке.

Так как учебник предназначен специально для студентов вечернего и заочного отделений, звуки речи описаны в нем и как артикуляционные « как функциональные единицы. Это дает возможность студентам повторить нормативный курс, связать теорию с практикой живой речи. Большое вни­мание уделено в пособии описанию артикуляторно-дистрибутивных свойств 'фонем, что способствует пониманию роли их реально звучащих в речи зву­ковых вариантов — аллофонов.

В учебнике широко используется транскрибирование. Это имеет не­маловажное значение для создания прочной произносительной базы и даль­нейшего сохранения нормативного произношения, что особенно необходимо учителю иностранного языка.

Вопросы по теоретическому материалу учебника являются основой для контроля усвоения изученного материала.

Регулярная работа с упражнениями помогает овладеть теоретическим материалом.

Контрольные задания дают возможность проверить знания студентов.

Упражнения на тренировку наиболее трудных звуковых переходов ъ системе английского вокализма и консонантизма в сравнении с русским языком помогут учащимся улучшить произношение и сознательно подойти к исправлению ошибок.

Работа над упражнениями, связанными с определением различий в минимальных парах, основанных на принципах классификации фонем, способствует более глубокому пониманию смыслоразличительных функций звуковых единиц, учит студентов самостоятельно проводить фонетико-фонологический анализ.

В упражнениях раздела «Фонемы и орфография» следует обратить вни­мание на тренировку чтения и письма имен собственных и географических названий — наиболее сложного материала при овладении произношением английского языка.

Упражнения на понимание структуры слога, роли сонорности и на­пряженности артикуляции в слогообразовании, на соотношение произно­сительного, морфологического и орфографического слога рассчитаны на сознательное овладение слоговой структурой английской речи.

Упражнения на овладение акцентным компонентом фонетического строя неразрывно связаны с задачами обучения произношению в единстве всех его компонентов.

Раздел «Интонация» содержит упражнения, рассчитанные на пони­мание структурных особенностей интонации, ее роли в овладении англий­ской речью.

Для интенсификации учебного процесса на вечернем и заочном отде­лениях рекомендуется выносить часть материала на обсуждение в научно-исследовательских студенческих кружках по теоретической и практической фонетике. Можно также рекомендовать: а) обсуждение докладов по отдель­ным проблемам теоретической фонетики; б) отчеты о работе кружков (под руководством членов секций теоретической фонетики) в школе во время педагогической практики студентов; в) анализ фонетической части школь­ных учебников на материале, собранном студентами во время педагогической практики.

Большую роль в изучении теоретической фонетики на вечернем и за­очном отделениях играет изготовление студентами наглядных пособий: таблиц, схем, рисунков строения органов речи и артикуляции звуков.

В связи со спецификой работы на вечернем и заочном отделениях ре­комендации автора к изучению теоретической фонетики носят общий харак­тер. Преподаватель в каждом конкретном случае может творчески адап­тировать материал в соответствии с особенностями аудитории и уровнем подготовки групп. Структура учебника дает возможность варьировать методические приемы для выполнения требований программы.

Автор

CONTENTS

I. THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF PHONETICS.......................................................... 8

Questions.............................................................................................................. 14

Exercises............................................................................................................... 14

Control Tasks ..................................................................................................... 17

II. SOUNDS OF SPEECH AS ACOUSTIC AND ARTICULATORY
UNITS.................................................................................................................. 19

Acoustic Aspect of Speech¹ Sounds.................................................................... . 19

Articulatory and Physiological Aspect of Speech Sounds ...... 21

Questions............................................................................................................... 25

Exercises............................................................................................................ . 25

Control Tasks........................................................................................................ 25

Articulatory and Physiological Classification of English Consonants 25
Differences in the Articulation Bases of English and Russian Consonants

and Their Peculiarities..................................................................................................... 31

Questions.............................. -...................................................................................... 33

Exercises....................................................................................................................... 33

Control Tasks............................................................................................................. 35

Articulatory and Physiological Classification of English Vowels ... 35

Differences in the Articulation Bases of English and Russian Vowels 42

Questions............................................................................................................... 43

Exercises........................................................................................................................... 44

Control Tasks.................................................................................................................... 47

III. FUNCTIONAL ASPECT OF SPEECH SOUNDS................................................................. 48

Questions ...,«>■<............................................................................................. 54

Exercises.......................................................................................................................... 54

Control Tasks.............................................................................................................. 57

English Consonants as Units of the Phonological System............................................... 57

Questions...................................................................................................................... 61

Exercises .................... •........................................................ •......................... 62

Control Tasks............................................................................................................... 63

English Vowels as Units of the Phonological System .......... 63

Questions................................................................................................................ 67

Exercises............................................................................................................. . 67

Control Tasks.......................................................................................................... 68

Consonant Phonemes. Description of Principal Variants................................................................... 68

Occlusive Noise Consonant Phonemes (Plosives) /p, b, t, d, k, g/ 69

Questions............................................................................................................... 74

Exercises.......................................................................................................................... 74

Occlusive Nasal Sonorants /m, n, n/............................................................... 75

Questions............................................................................................................... 77

Exercises................................................................................................................ 77

Constrictive Noise Consonant Phonemes (Fricatives) /s, z, f, v, Ö, Э, h,

L zl..................................................................... l

Questions......................................................................................................................... 83

Exercises................................................................................... ,..................................... 83

Constrictive Sonorants (Approximants) /r, j, 1, w/................................... 85

Questions............................................................................................................. 39

Exercises....................................................................................................................... 90

Occlusive-Constrictive Noise Phonemes (Affricates) /tf, аз/ ... 91

Questions............................................................................................................... 93

Exercises.......................................................................................................................... 93

Subsidiary Variants of English Consonant Phonemes.............................................. 93

Questions.................................................................................................................. |03

Exercises................................................................................................................... ¹⁰«

Control Task.................................................................................................. 105

Vowel Phonemes, Description of Principal Variants............................................. 105

a) Monophthongs, or Simple Vowels............................................................ 105

Questions.......................................................................................................... Uf

Exercises................................................................................................................. П5

Control Task.................................................................................................. 18

Jb) Diphthongs, or Complex Vowels..................................................................... 19

Closing Diphthongs....................................................................................... 119

Centring Diphthongs..................................................................................... 123

'Subsidiary Variants of English Vowel Phonemes......................................... 125

a) Unchecked and Checked Vowels............................................................... 125

Quecsions................................................................................................. • • ^

Emtises............................................................................................................... 134

Control Tasks...................................................................................................... 136

Л) Diphthongs........................................................................................................... {37

Questions........................................................................................................ I⁴²

Exercises........................................................................................................... И2

Control Tasks................................................................................................ 343

IV. ARTICULATORY TRANSITIONS OF VOWEL AND CONSO­
NANT PHONEMES............................................................................................. И5

Assimilation............................................................................................................. 145

Elision....................................................................................................................... 150

Questions................................................................................................................. 51

Exercises............................................................................................................. 152

Control Tasks.................................................................................................. 154

V. ENGLISH PHONEMES IN WRITING...................................................... 157

Questions............................................................................................................. 162

Exercises......................................................................................................... - 163

Control Tasks.................................................................................................. 164

VI. SYLLABLE..................................................................................................... 167

Theories of Syllable Formation and Syllable Divisjon..................................... 170

Functional Characteristics of the Syllable.......................................................... 174

Graphic Characteristics of the Syllable................................................................... 175

Questions................................................................................................................. 176

Exercises.............................................................................................................. 176

Control Tas!is.................................................................................................. 178

VII. STRESS.............................................................................................................. 179

Questions................................................................................................................. 185

Exercises......................................................................................................... . 186

Control Tasks...................................................................................................... 188

VIII. STRONG AND WEAK FORMS. UNSTRESSED VOCALISM 190

Questions.................................................................. ... 196

Exercises............................................................................................................... 196

Control Tasks......................................... ... 197

IX. INTONATION............................................................................................... 198

Melody........................................................................................................................ 19a

Sentence Stress, or Accent.................................................................................. 2011

Rhythm and Tempo............................................................................................... 202

Pausation and Tamber................................................................................................ 203

Stylistic Use of Intonation................................................................................. 204

Questions................................................................................................................. 205

Exercises............................................................................................................. ²⁰⁵

Control Tasks.................................................................................................... 20a

X. RECEIVED AND GENERAL AMERICAN PRONUNCIATION 2"1#

The System of American English Consonants.................................................... 213'

The System of American English Vowels....................................................... 21/"

The Accentual Structure of Words in American English............................ 2211

Intonation in American English.............................................................. 22SP

Questions................................................................................................................. 22^

Exercises.................................................................................................................. 224

Key to Exercises......................................................................................................... 227

Glossary of Phonetic Terms.................................................................................... 244*

Bibliography . •........................................................................................ , . 270

I. THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF PHONETICS

". . . men . . . arrived at the point where they had something to say to each other. Necessity created the organ; the undeveloped larynx of the… "First labour, after it and then with it, speech—these were the two most… "By the combined functioning of hands, speech organs and brain, not only in each individual but also in society,…

U

Homographs can be differentiated only due to pronunciation, because they are identical ш spelling, e.g.

bow /bau/ лук—bow /bau/ поклон

lead /li:d/ руководство—lead /led/ свинец

row /гэи/ ряд—row /rau/ шум

sewer /зэиэ/ швея—sewer /sjus/ сточная труба

tear /tea/ разрыв—tear /иэ/ слеза

wind /wind/ ветер—wind /wamd/ виток

Due to the position of word accent we can distinguish between homonymous words and word groups, e.g.

'blackbird дрозд—'black ⁴bird черная птица

Phonetics is also connected with stylistics; first of all through intonation and its components: speech melody, utterance stress, rhythm, pausation and voice tamber which serve to express emotions, to distinguish between different attitudes on the part of the author and speaker. Very often the writer helps the reader to interpret his ideas through special words and remarks such as: a pause, a short pause, angrily, hopefully, gently, incredulously, etc. For example:

"Now let me ask you girls and boys, would you paper a room with representations of horses?"

After a pause, one half of the children cried in chorus, "Yes, sirl" Upon which the other half, seeing in the gentleman's face that "Yes" was wrong, cried out in chorus, "No, sirl"—as the custom is in these examinations.

"Of course, no. Why wouldn't you?"

A pause. (Ch. Dickens. Hard Times)

If the author wants to make a word or a sentence specially promi­nent or logically accented, he uses graphical expressive means, e.g.:

Phonetics is also connected with stylistics through repetition of words, phrases and sounds. Repetition of this kind serves the basis of rhythm, rhyme and alliteration.

Regular recurrence of accented elements, or rhythm, may be used as a special device not only in poetry, but in prose as well.

For example, in the extract given below the repetition of the word fact helps Ch. Dickens to characterize his hero, Mr. Gradgrind as a narrow-minded person unable to see anything behind bare facts.

"Now, what I want is Facts. Teach these boys and girls nothing but Facts. Facts alone are wanted in life. Plant nothing else and root out everything else. You can only form the minds of reasoning animals upon Facts; nothing else will ever be of any service to them." (Ibid.)

In the description of Gradgrind's "mental introduction" rhythm is'achieved through the repetition of parallel constructions, beginning with the word man, which gradually develop and help to achieve the ■climax of significance.

"Thoraas Gradgrind, sir. A man of realities. A man of facts and calculations. A man who proceeds upon the principle that two and "two are four, and nothing over, and who is not to be talked into al­lowing for anything over. Thomas Gradgrind, sir — peremptorily Thomas—Thomas Gradgrind." (Ibid.)

The repetition of identical or similar sounds, which is called allit­eration, helps, together with the words to which they belong, to im­part a melodic effect to the utterance and to express certain emo­tions. Thus, the repetition of the sonant /m/ in the lines of the ballad, given below (together with the other stylistic devices), helps to pro­duce the effect of merriment.

There are twelve months in all the year, As I hear many men say, But the merriest month in all the year Is the merry month of May.

The repetition of the words year, say and May produces the effect of rhyme.

Onomatopoeia, a combination of sounds which imitate sounds produced in nature, is one more stylistic device which can serve as an example of the connection between phonetics and stylistics. E.g.: tinkle, jingle, clink, ting, chink; chatter, jabber, clatter, babble; chirp, cheep, twitter, chirrup; clap, dab, smack; crash, bang.

The study of phonetic phenomena from the stylistic point of view is phonostylistics. It is connected with a number of linguistic and non-linguistic disciplines, such as: paralinguistics, psychology, psy-cholinguistics, sociology, sociolinguistics, dialectology, literary crit­icism, aesthetics, information theory, etc.

Phonetics has the following branches: 1) articulatory (physiolog­ical) and perceptive (auditory), 2) acoustic, 3) functional (linguistic).

Articulatory and perceptive investigation of speech sounds is done on the basis of a good knowledge of the voice and sound produc­ing mechanisms, their structure, work and perceptive (auditory) effects, that is—physiology and psychology. Articulatory phonetics makes use of such instruments and devices as: a hand mirror, laryn­goscope, artificial palate, graphical representations of sounds, pho­tographs and X-ray photographs, gramophone records and magnetic tape recorder. TV classes and special films are also very helpful for the investigation and study of the articulatory aspect of speech.

Acoustic properties of sounds, that is, quantity, or length, tamber, intensity, pitch, temporal factor are investigated by the acoustic and auditory branch of phonetics.

Special laboratory equipment, such as kymograph, spectrograph,
oscillograph and Monograph help to obtain the necessary data about
prosodic properties of speech sounds. ,..,_*

A kymograph records qualitative variations of sounds in the form of kymographic tracings,

A spectrograph produces sound spectrograms which help to list the frequencies of a given sound and its relative amplitudes".

An oscillograph records oscillograms of sound vibrations of any frequency. Automatically recorded oscillograms can be observed upon the screen.

An intonograph measures automatically: 1) the fundamental tone of the vocal cords, 2) the average sound pressure, 3) the duration or length of speech (pausation). The results are recorded: 1) visually upon the screen of the electron-ray tube, 2) on paper or film with the continuous reproduction by tape recorder, 3) in digits (while estimat­ing the limits of the recorded area along the screen of the electron-ray tube).

The phonological or functional properties of phonemes, syllables, accent and intonation are investigated by means of special linguistic methods, which help to interpret them as socially significant ele­ments.

Theoretical significance of phonetics is connected with the further development of the problem or the synchronic study and description of the phonetic system of a national language, the comparative ana­lysis and description of different languages and the study of the cor­respondences between them, the diachronic description of successive changes in the phonetic system of a language or different languages.

Practical significance of phonetics is connected with teaching foreign languages. Practical phonetics is applied in methods of speech correction, teaching deaf-mutes, film doubling, transliteration, radio and telephone.

Questions

1; What is the significance of speech according to the classics of Marxism-Leninism? 2. What are the vowel and consonant transcrip­tion symbols? 3. What rules for writing transcription symbols do you know? 4. How is phonetics connected with other sciences? 5. What are the branches of phonetics? 6. What are the methods and devices, of phonetic investigation? 7. What is the practical and theoretical significance of phonetics?

Exercises

*1. Write the plural forms of these words and transcribe them. Prove thai,': phonetics is connected with grammar.

witch judge half loaf wife mistress

glass crash knife self wolf sculptress

fox calf leaf sheaf actress waitress

gas elf life thief hostess lioness
14

*2. Write the three forms of these verbs and transcribe them. Prove that pho­netics is connected with grammar.

beg compel stop work nod invent

live recognize wrap pass permit rest

open arrive help ship wait load

travel " rain ask pack expect depend

cancel inform discuss look

■*3. Transcribe these words. Underline the interchanging vowels and conso­nants in the corresponding parts of speech.

nation—national advice—to advise

grave—gravity use—to use

provoke—provocative a house—to house

zeal—zealous an excuse—to excuse

supreme—supremacy a device—to devise

occur—'occurrence loose—to lose

close—to close

*4. Read these words and word combinations. Translate them into Russian. Prove that phonetics is connected with lexicology through accent.

'redbreast — fred 'breast I break-1 promise—'break 'promise

'bluebell—'blue 'bell'heavy-weight—'heavy 'weight

'bluestone—'blue 'stone 'red-book—'red 'book

'blue-lines—'blue 'lines 'blue-stocking—'blue 'stocking

'bluebottle—'blue 'bottle 'blue-nose—'blue 'nose

'blackshirt—'black 'shirt 'blue-coat—'blue 'coat

'black-face—'black 'face 'blue-bonnet—'blue 'bonnet

tbird's-eye—'bird's 'eye 'black-hole—'black 'hole
'bread-and-butter—'bread and 'black mass—'black 'mass
'butter

*5. Transcribe, read and translate these pairs of words, Single out the sounds that differentiate the meaning of the words,

still—steel sell—sale but—bath

poo!—pull model—modal breath—breadth

ship—sheep saw—so diary—dairy

sit—seat Polish—polish suit—suite

fill—feel guard—guide patrol—petrol

live—leave worth—worse mayor—major

ill—eel truth—truce rout—route
slip—sleep

6. Read these pairs of words. State to what parts of speech they belong. Single out the sounds that interchange. Translate the words into Russian.

deep — depth antique—antiquity know—knowledge

brief—brevity coal—collier please—pleasure

sagacious—sagacity mead—meadow perceive—perception

strong—strength nature—natural describe — description

precise—precision beast—bestial abound—abundance

broad — breadth brass—brazen mode—modify

IS

Slower—-flourish admit—admission pretend—pretention

assume—assumption correct—correction precise—precision

presume—presumption conclude —conclusion object—objection

confess—confession divide—division neglect—negligent

depress—depression collide—collision compete—competition

deceive—deception intent—intention rector—rectorial

'7. Read these compounds. Single out the sounds that interchange. Translate the compounds into Russian.

knick-knack shilly-shally ping—pong

mingle-mangle tick—tack sing—song

mish—mash wiggle—waggle slip—slop

prittle—prattle wig—wag tip—top

rickety—rackety zig-zag wish—wash

_riff__raff clip—clop wishy-washy
rip—rap
*8. Read the rhyme. State what stylistic effect is achieved through repetition.

To market,, to market, to buy a fat pig, Home again, home again, jiggety jig; To market, to market, to buy a fat hog. Home again, home again, jiggety jog. To market,' to market, to buy a plum bun, Home again, home again, market is done.

•*e. Read the rhyme. Why is the word "think" singled out?

Look to left and look to right, Note what traffic is in sight. Note, too, which light can be seen: The Red, the Amber, or the Green-Children, keep from dangerous play And THINK before you cross today.

*10. Read these rhymes. State what sounds are used to produce the effect of alliteration and for what purpose.

(a) She sells sea-shells on the sea-shore;

The shells she sells are sea-shells, I'm sure. So if she sells sea-shells on the sea-shore, Then I'm sure she sells sea-shore shells.

(b) Swan swam over the sea —
Swim, swan, swim;

Swan swam back again-Well swum swan.

*11. Read the rhyme. Transcribe the words ased to imitate the sounds made by different animals. State the stylistic device formed by this phonetic means.

Bow-wow, says the dog;

Mew, mew, says the cat; Grunt, grunt, goes the hog;

And squeak, goes the rat. Tu-whu, says the owl; Caw, caw, says the crow; Quack, quack, says the duck;

And moo, says the cow.

Control Tasks

1. How do you prove that phonetics is an independent science?

2. Cive examples to prove the significance of phonetics.

S. Give examples to prove that phonetics is connected with other sciences, *4. Translate these words and then transcribe them.

1. очень; меняться, изменяться; 2. личный; персонал, личный состав; 3. костюм; свита; 4. патруль; бензин; 5. мэр; майор; 6. бунт; разгром; маршрут, путь; 7. выносить, терпеть; пиво; 8. год; ухо; 9. набережная; очередь; 10. допускать; доступ, вход; 11. влиять; эффект; 12. сквозняк; засуха; 13, волосы; заяц; наследник; 14. на­ливать; бедный; лапа; 15. мужество; вагон: 16. требовать; приобре­тать

*5. Give the plural form of these words and then transcribe both^forms.

wolf, wife, life, leaf, thief, knife, sheaf, half, self, elf, loaf, calf, echo, potato, hostess, tigress, basis, thesis, crisis, analysis, man, foot, goose, mouse, bath, house, class, box, dish, inch, phenome­non, focus

*6. Single out pairs of sounds the interchange of which makes the words dif­ferent parts of speech.

clothe v—cloth n halve v—half n

glaze v—glass n live v—life n

loathe v—loath ft prove v—proof n

lose v—loss n serve v—serf n

*7. Accent and transcribe these words. Translate them into Russian.

insult—to insult outgrowth—to outgrow

object—to object outlay—to outlay

outgo—to outgo out throw—to outthrow

produce—to produce present—to present subject—to subject protest—to protest

torment—to torment

*8. Read the poem by an anonymous writer and state what phonetic expressive means the author ases to make it more^impress!ve.

Susan Simpson

Sudden swallows swiftly skimming.

Sunset's slowly spreading shade, Silvery songsters sweetly singing

Summer's soothing serenade.

Susan Simpson strolled sedately.

Stifling sobs, suppressing sighs. Seeing Stephen Slocum, stately

She stopped, showing some surprise.

"Say," said Stephen, "sweetest sigher;

Say, shall Stephen spouseless stay?" Susan, seeming somewhat shyer,

Showed submissiveness straightaway.

Summer's season slowly stretches, Susan Simpson Slocum she—

So she signed some simple sketches — Soul sought soul successfully.

Six September Susan swelters;

Six sharp seasons snow supplies; Susan's satin sofa shelters

Six small Slocums side by side.

*9. Say how the effect of rhythm and rhyme is achieved by phonetic expressive means in the poem by D. F. Alderson.

Lines on Montezuma

(an extract)

Montezuma

Met a puma

Coming through the rye:

Montezuma made the puma

Into apple-pie.

Invitation To the nation Everyone to come. Montezuma And the puma Give a kettle-drum.

Acceptation

Of the nation

One and all invited.

Montezuma—

And the puma

Equally delighted.

II. SOUNDS OF SPEECH AS ACOUSTIC AND ARTICULATORY UNITS

Speech sounds can be analysed from the viewpoint of three as­pects: (1) acoustic, (2) physiological and articulatory, (3) functional,

ACOUSTIC ASPECT OP SPEECH SOUNDS

The vocal cords vibrate along the whole of their length, producing fundamental frequency, and along the varying portions of their length, producing… The complex range of frequencies which make up the quality of a sound is known… Perception of the pitch of a speech sound depends upon the fre­quency of vibration of the vocal cords. The higher the…

ARTICULATORY AND PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT OF SPEECH SOUNDS

clataonthearticulatory mechanism and its work should be introduced. Speech is impossible without the following four mechanisms: (1) the power mechanism,

DIFFERENCES IN THE ARTICULATION BASES OF THE ENGLISH AND RUSSJAN CONSONANTS AND THEIR PECULIARITIES

The peculiarities of the articulation bases which give rise to the-differences in the system of consonants in English and in Russian are-the… (1) The English forelingual consonants are articulated with the'… (2) In the production of the Russian consonants the bulk of the- tongue is mainly in the front-mid part of the mouth…

Ts> 5/.

— absence of aspiration in /p, t, k/ when they occur initially, — weak pronunciation of voiceless fortis /p, tF k, f, s, J", tf/, — devoicing of voiced /b, d, g, v, 3, z, g, djj/ in the terminal position,

Read these Russian and English words. Avoid palatalization of English initial consonants before the front vowels /h, t, e, ei/.

Пит—pit сил —sill Фили—feeling лес —less кит—kit ■ зил —zeal бел —bell бег —beg гей —gay сел —sell тип —tip нет —net

Draw the following table: classification of English and Russian consonants according to the voice or noise prevalence.

3. Draw the following table: classification of English and Russian consonants
according to the manner of the production of noise and the type of obstruc­
tion,

ARTICULATORY AND PHYSIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF ENGLISH VOWELS

between these points were X-rayed*and the JV V~ equi-distant points for No. 2, 3, 6, 7 were "~ A. symbols for the 8 Cardinal *… qdtt pit f N 2, 3, 6, 7 found. The IPA symbols for the 8 Cardinal

DIFFERENCES IN THE^ARTICULATION BASES OF ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN jVOWELS

(1) The lips. In the production of Russian vowels the lips are con­ siderably protruded and rounded /о, у/. In the articulation of the similar… (2) The bulk of the tongue. In the articulation of the English vow­ els the… Each of the three vertical positions of the tongue (high, mid, low) in English is subdivided into a narrow and broad…

А—ЛД

(2) slightly rounded, but not protruded vowels /u:, o:/;

(3) vowels articulated with the "flat" position of the lips in the
/i:, i, e, ei/ production;

(4) very low vowels, such as /se, v, a/;

(5) front-retracted /i/ and back-advanced /u, a/;

(6) central or mixed /э, s:/;

(7) checked and free vowels;

(8) diphthongs /ei, ai, oi, ю₇ еэ, иэ, аи, эй/.

In articulating EngHsh vowels Russian students are apt to make the following mistakes:

(1) they do not observe the quantitative character of the long
vowels;

(2) they do not observe the qualitative difference in the artic­
ulation of such vowels as /i:—if, /и:—и/, /э:—1>/;

(3) they replace the English vowels /i:, о:, и:, л, за, о., и/ by
the Russian vowels /и, о, у, а, э/;

(4) they pronounce /i:, i, e, ei/ without the "flat position" of
the lips;

(5) they soften consonants which precede /i:, i, e, se, ei/ front
vowels as a result of which the latter become more narrow and
the consonants are palatalyzed.

(6) they articulate /t>, o:, u, u:, эй/ with the lips too much
rounded and protruded;

(7) they make the sounds /se, d/ more narrow because they
don't open the mouth properly, similarly to the Russian /э, о/;

 

(8) they do not observe the positional length of vowels;

(9) they make both elements of the diphthongs equally distinct;
(10) they pronounce initial vowels with a glottal stop (?).

Questions

1. What do you know about the system of Cardinal Vowels devised by D, Jones? 2. What is the acoustic nature of vowels? 3. What are Shcherba's principles of vowel classification? 4. What are the prin­ciples of vowel classification suggested by Soviet phoneticians? 5. How are vowels classified according to the movements of the bulk of the

tongue? 6. What do you know about the principle of lip participation and the degree of tenseness in the articulation of vowels? 7. How are vowels classified according to their tenseness and length? What does the length of vowels depend on? 8. What is the difference between checked and unchecked vowels? 9. What do you know about stabiliiy of articulation in vowel production? 10. What are the differences in the articulation bases of English and Russian vowel sounds? 11. What mistakes may the Russian students make because of the articulation differences in the pronunciation of English and Russian vowel sounds?

Exercises

1. Show by dots the position of cardinal vowels on the trapezium. Supply each
dot with the appropriate cardinal vowel and its number.

2. Characterize each of,'(he cardinal vowels according to D. Jones,

3. Draw a diagram of cardinal vowels.

*4.[*;Describe the cardinal vowels that can be compared with the corres onding ' Russian vowels.

*5. Give examples to prove that voiceless vowels exist in English and in Rus­sian.

6. Explain the articulation of the /i:, e, ге/ sounds from the viewpoint of the
horizontal and vertical movements of the tongue.

7. Explain the articulation of the /э, э:/ sounds from the viewpoint of the hor­
izontal and vertical movements of the tongue. Compare these sounds with
the Russian vowel sounds /ы, а/.

8. Explain the articulation of the /u:, э:, et:/ sounds from the viewpoint of the
horizontal and vertical movements of the tongue.

fl. Explain the articulatory differences between the/i: — i/, /u: — u/, h: — u/ sounds.

10. Give articulatory and morphological proofs of diphthong indivisibility. Prove by examples that the Russian sound combinations /ой, аи, эй/ are not diphthongs.

*I1. Draw sagittal figures and use solid and dotted lines to show that the /i:, u:/ vowels can be pronounced as diphthongoids.

*12. Transcribe these'"words and read them. Observe the difference between the fully front /i:/ and the front-retracted hi.

(a) seem—since (b) read—rid

meal—тШ steal—still

mean—mince creek—crick

sleep—slip sleet—slit

least—list seek—sick

(c) team—Tim (d) seen—sin

feel—fill dealer—dinner

been—chill heat—hit

cheap—chip beat—bit

(e) deed-did (!) fees—fizz

Jean—Jim me—missed

feeling—filling . these—this

eat—it steep—stick
seats—sits

(g) leave—live (h) he—him

fever—fifty theme—thing

beacon—bill seals—sits

cheek—chin steep—stiff

beat—bit people—pit

*13. Transcribe these words and read them. Observe the difference between the mid-open /e/ and the fully open (low) /ее/.

(a) bed—bad (b) bead—had

then—than ten—tan

plenty—plan left—lad

else—Alice let—slack

letter—ladder select—relax

(c) French—ran (d)end—and

pence—pants then—than

burial—barrow anyway—family

t wenty—twang bed—b ack

many—matter helping—happy

(e) dead—Dad (f) ten—tan

any—Alice men—man

Shelly—shall said—sad

merry—married bed—bad

Henry—happy ' chest — chap

(g) Hetty—hat (h) any—anxious

central—sandy bet—back

cheviot—channel plenty—platform

many—map flesh—flash

vessel—value

elderly—anxious

*J4. Transcribe these words and read them. Observe the difference between the low long vowel of broad variation /a:/ and the low short vowei of narrow variation /л/.

(a) calm—come (b) aunt—under

rather—running hard—hundred

barn—button dark—dull

lark—luck basket—above

classes—busses Jark—flush

(c) marvel—money (d) darn—done

laugh—lovely Bart—but

past—puzzl ing cart—cut

market—mug March—much
last—London

(e) Arnold—others (f) hardly—honey

master—monkeys rather—rubbed

started—study last—luck

Tobte 3

 

 

 

 

	Front	Front-re­tracted	Mixed, central	Back-ad­vanced	Back
Close (high)	Narrow variation
Broad variation
Mid-open (mid)	Narrow variation
Broad variation
Open (low)	Narrow variation
Broad variation

enlarge—instructor

(h) arm—other hardly—hundred started—studied March—much half—struck

last—must (g) France—front

harbours—hundred

advantage—above

half—hut

past—but (i) star—stun

can't—come

hard—hut

target—two-pence

mask—must

* 15. Transcribe these words and read them. Observe the difference between the high /i:, i/, the mid /e/ and the low Ы1,

bid—bed—bad team—ten—tan

rid—read—rat hid—head—had

mill—men—man Hit—-left—lad

Sid—said—sad lit—let—lack

pit—pet—pat mean—many—matter
beat—bet—bat

*16. Transcribe these words and read them. Observe the difference between the back Ы, the mixed Ы and the front /se/.

all—earl—shall caught—curt—cat walk—work—whack for—fur—fat

torn—turn—tan call—curl—cat board—bird—bad

chalk—church—channel

warm—worm—twang saw—sir—sad

more— mercy—man caution—curtain—cat

lawn—learn—lad

Control Tasks

1. Make a copy of Table 3 and fill it in with the suitable vowels.

2. Draw a diagram of English and Russian vowel sounds and mark by dots
the eight cardinal vowels.

III. FUNCTIONAL ASPECT OF SPEECH SOUNDS

Separate segments of speech continuum have no meaning of their own, they mean something only in combinations, which are called words.

Phonetics studies sounds as articulatory and acoustic units, pho­nology investigates sounds as units, which serve communicative pur­poses. Phonetics and phonology are closely connected. The unit of phonetics is a speech sound, the unit of phonology is a phoneme. Pho­nemes can be discovered by the method of minimal pairs. This method consists in finding pairs of words which differ in one phoneme. For example, if wereplace /b/ by /t/ in the word ban we produce a new word tan, ban — tan is a pair of words distinguished in meaning by a single sound change. Two words of this kind are termed "minimal pair". It is possible to take this process further, we can also produce can, ran, man, fan — it is a minimal set. The change of the vowel Izd in ban provides us with another minimal set: bun, bone, Ben, burn, boon, born. The change of the final /n/ in ban will result in a third minimal set: bad, bat, back, badge, bang. To establish the phonemes of the lan­guage the phonologist tries to find pairs that show which sounds oc­cur or do not occur in identical positions —■ commutation test. See Table 4.

The phonemes of a language form a system of oppositions, in which any one phoneme is usually opposed to any other phoneme in at least one position in at least one lexical or grammatical minimal or sub-minimal pair. If the substitution of one sound for another re­sults in the change of meaning, the commuted sounds are different phonemes, speech sounds, which are phonologically significant.

The founder of the phoneme theory was I.A. Baudouin de Courte-ney, the Russian scientist of Polish origin. His theory of phoneme was developed гпб. perfected by L.V. Shcherba — the head of the Leningrad linguistic school, who stated that in actual speech we ut­ter a much greater variety of sounds than we are aware of, and thai in every language these sounds are united in a comparatively smalt number of sound types, which are capable of distinguishing the mean­ing and the form of words; that is they serve the purpose of social intercommunication. It is these sound types that should be included into the classification of phonemes and studied as differentiatory units of the language. The actually pronounced speech sounds are va­riants, or allophones of phonemes. Allophones are realized in con­crete words. They have phonetic similarity, that is their acoustic and articulatory feautures have much in common, at the same time they differ in some degree and are incapable of differentiating words. For example, in speech we pronounce not the sound type tt(, which is aspirated, alveolar, forelingual, apical, occlusive, plosive, voiceless-fortis—according to the classificatory definition, but — one of its variants, e.g. labialized in the word twice, dental in the word eighth, post-alveolar in try, exploded nasally in written, exploded la-

terally in little, pronounced without aspiration in stay, etc. Another example: the sound type, or the vowel phoneme /i:/, which is de­fined as "unrounded, fully front, high, narrow, tense, long, free", is more back in key, than in eat under the influence of the backlingual /k/, it is longer before a voiced lenis, than before a voiceless fortis consonant: seed— seat, greed — greet, etc.

The number of sound types, or phonemes, in each language is much smaller than the number of sounds actually pronounced (see Table 5).

Phonemic variants, or allophones, are very important for language teaching because they are pronounced in actual speech and though their mispronunciation does not always influence the meaning of the words, their misuse makes a person's speech sound as "foreign".

That variant of the phoneme which is described as the most re­presentative and free from the influence of the neighbouring pho­nemes is considered to be typical, or principal. The variants used in actual speech are called subsidiary. Subsidiary allophones can be positional and combinatory. Positional allophones are used in cer­tain positions traditionally. For example, the English /1/ is realized in actual speech as a positional allophone: it is clear in the initial po­sition, and dark in the terminal position, compare tight, let and hill, milt. Russian positional allophones can be observed in вопль, рубль where terminal /л/ is devoiced after voiceless /п, б/.

Combinatory allophones appear in the process of speech and re­sult from the influence of one phoneme upon another — see below,

To distinguish the sound types from their allophones in writing, two types of brackets are used: slant-like for the phonemes proper, and square—for their allophones, e. g. the phoneme /1/ has two po­sitional allophones: clear [1J and dark [I]. In practical teaching the most important allophones should be mentioned to teach the pupils their correct pronunciation.

Each phoneme manifests itself in a certain pattern of distribution. The simplest of them is free variation, that is the variation of one and the same phoneme pronounced differently, e. g. the pronunciation of the initial /k/ with different degrees of aspiration, the pronunciation of /w/ as /W in why, which, who.

Complementary distribution is another pattern of phoneme envi­ronment, when one and the same phoneme occurs in a definite set of. contexts in which no other phoneme ever occurs. The allophones of one and the same phoneme never occur in the same context, variants of one phoneme are mutually exclusive.¹

Contrastive distribution, is one more pattern of phoneme envi­ronment, e. g. said — sad, pit — peat, bad — bed — these are min­imal pairs.

Minimal distinctive features are discovered through oppositions. This method helps to prove whether the phonemic difference is rele-

¹ When allophones of one phoneme do occur In the same context without distinctive force, they are in free variation.

/ь/

/р/ р»_г

/ь/

/т/ /w/

Л/ /v/

Е/ /*/ т

Each minimal pair exemplifies a possible consonant opposition

pike— pen— pine— pan— pin— pine— pin— park— piece- mike when fine van thin thine tin dark niece boss— bind— boot— ban— brash— bat— bill— bide— beer-… wind— went— wick— wine— will— wide— weed- find vent thick thine till died… fear— fear— near vane— vow-thane thou

IV

III

/3/

/r/ /I/

/k/ /S/ /0/

vant or not, whether the opposition is single, double or multiple, e.g. /t/ and /d/ differ along the following lines:

/t/ /d/

voiceless fortis voiced lenis

Their other characteristic features are irrelevant, thus /t/ and M/ have only one distinctively relevant feature — single opposition. We can prove that this opposition is really phonemic by the minimal pairs: ten — den, time — dime, try — dry. If there are two distinc-

Commutation Table 4
(other examples can be found by the students).

M N IV Ш № /r/ /i/ /к/ /g/ /о/ /Ь/

perch— pope— pay— pine,— rope— pipe— top— play— pig— pip— pen-
search pose lay shine rouge ripe toy clay gig ping hen

birch— best— bay— bob— babe— bound- bell— bar— bide— bib— be—

search zest lay bosh beige round yell car guide bing he

mad— meal— mike— make— room— mice— mel- mad— met— rum— mouse-
sad zeal like shake rouge rice low— cad get rung house

yellow

wo- west— wife— whine— — wipe— well— wave— wave— — we-

und— zest life shine ripe yell cave gave atth—

sound health

found— feel— fife— fee— roof— foot— • folk— fat— fame— rough— force-
sound zeal life she rouge root yoke catgame rung horse

veal— veal— vice— veer— — vice— veer— van— vet— have— view-
seal zeal lice sheer rice year can get hang bue

thin- think— thaw— thief- ruth- thumb- thaw- throw— throw— hath— third-
sin zinc law shief rouge runt your crow grow hang heard

they— thee— thy— thy- bathe- thy- then- that- these- with— there-
say zee lie shy beige rye yen cat geese wing here

talk— booty— tight— toe— root— talks— tongue- tin— tap— sit— Toby-
sock boozy tight shoe rouge rock young kin gap sing hobby

died— deal— dives— death— rude— doe— door— dan- died— bad— dear-
side zeal lives chef rouge rowyour cer— guide bang hear

cancer

knock— known- knife— nave— bane— knock- hap— night— name— Ian— near-
sock nose life shave beige rock yap kite game fang hear

peace— sock— sock— base— — sock— sore— city— same— sis— sit—

peas rock slock beige rock your kitty game sing hit

zest— zone— ruse— sest— zoo— zinc— easel— has— zero—

lest shown rouge rest you kink eagle hang hero

look— rule— lice— less— lick— lame— silk— late—

shook rouge rice yes kick game sink bate

ruche— shock— shell— shin— shame- wish— she-
rouge rock yell kin game wing he

rouge— — beige— — — —
Ruhr bake

rack— rid— rag— — roof-
yak kid gag hoof

yap— yes— —

cap guess

coat— sock— calf-
goat song half

bag— gear-
bang hear

tively relevant features, the opposition is double, e.g. /p/ and /d/ differ along the following lines:

/p/ /d/

voiceless fortis voiced lenis labial, bilabial | lingual, forelingual, apical, alveolar

This opposition is really phonemic. It can be proved by the minimal pairs: pie — die, pail — dale, pry — dry. The opposition /b/ — 1Ы

SI

Table 5

 

Comparative Table of	Phonemes in Different Languages
Language	Conso­nants	Vowels	Total	Language	Conso­nants	Vowels	Total
Russian English French	36 24 17	6 20 15	42 44 32	German Abkhazian Finnish	22 68 13	IS 3 8.	40 71 21

is multiple because these phonemes differ along the following linesi

/b/ /h/

voiced lenis voiceless fortis

labial, bilabial pharyngal

occlusive constrict ive

The phonemic nature of this opposition can be proved by minimal pairs, e.g. be — he, bit — hit, bait — hate.

Soviet phoneticians perform commutation tests on the basis of the knowledge of the grammatical form and the meaning of the words, they apply the semantic method of phoneme identification.

The method of minimal pairs helps to establish the inventory of phonemes, it is one of the two main problems of phonological analy­sis. The other big problem phonologists are confronted with is to define the phonemic status of the sound in the neutral position.

There is one more big problem in phonology — theory of distinc­tive features.

It was originated by N. S. Trubetskoy and developed by such fo­reign scientists as R, Jackobson, C. G. Fant, M. Halle, N. Chomsky, P. Ladefoged, H. Kucbra, G. K. Monroe and many Soviet phonolo­gists, such as L. R. Zinder, G. S. Klychkov, V. Ya. Plotkin, Stepona-vicius and many others.

The taxonomy of differentiator features is being constructed on the basis of objective reality of phonological distinction, which really exist in phonemic classes. Distinctive features are the main, basic elements of variability in different languages. The commutation of meaning and utterance is effected due to these features.

Enriching the theory of distinctive features Prof. G. S. Klychkov introduces a modal feature of "turbulency" to make the hierarchy of consonants more logical. He states that the main question of dis­tinctive theory is the criterion of frequency and the direction of markedness.

There are different opinions on the nature of the phoneme and its
definition. ^v

I. I. A Baudouin de Courteney (1845-1929) defined the phoneme as a psychical image of a sound. He originated the so called "menta-Jist view of the phoneme. In our days Prof. V. Ya. Ptotkin thinks it appropriate to revive the terms "kinema" and "acousma" coined 52

by Baudouin deCourteneyfor the psychic images of articulatory move­ments and their auditory counterparts and blended into "kinakeme" to designate the bilateral psychophonic unit He states that experimen­tal investigations demonstrate the impossibility of accepting the pho­neme as the basic unit in the production and perception of oral speech. Speech production and perception are cerebral activities first and fore­most, while the sound chain is the vehicle for their externalization. Thus phonemes are composed of kinakemes which possess the paradignr-atic, syntagmatic and semantic properties, characteristic of -other phonological units, and are ultimate phonological units. The accept­ance of the kinakeme makes the notion of distinctive phonemic fea­tures redundant in phonemic theory because the kinakeme covers prac­tically the same ground as the notion of "distinctive feature". (G. Fant considers the term "minimal category" or "distinction" much better than "distinctive feature".) V. Ya. Plotkin suggests two dichotomies:

jl. Kinakemic system consists of two sub-systems: vocalic and con_: sonantal, which are not rigidly separated.

2. All kinakemes are divided into two categories: modal and lo-cational.

Modal kinakemes are concerned with the origin of sounds and the vertical dimensions of the vocal tract. (1) Obstructional: a) occlu­sion, b) constriction, (2) Phonal: a) sonority, b) discordance.

Consonantal modal kinakemes determine the mode of obstruc­tion and the acoustic type of sound-tone or noise, their vocalic kina­kemes deal with the height of the vocal tract.

Locational kinakemes: vocalic and consonantal, function on the horizontal plane, activating certain areas along the vocal tract, (1) Articulatory: a) prelinguality, b) postlinguality. (2) Pointal: a) prealveolarity, b) postalveolarity.

"The-phoneme retains its status of the minimal unit of sound in the language system. Its indivisibility should be qualified as inability to be broken up into smaller units of sound." "As for the ultimate pho­nological unit, it is an instrument for the linguistic structuring of extralinguistic substance which might be called prephonic rather than phonic."¹

II. The abstraction^ conception of the phoneme was originated
by Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), the famous Swiss linguist and
the Danish linguist L. Hjelmsley (1889-1965). It was .advocated by
their pupils in the Copenhagen Linguistic Circle'. The "abstract" view
regards the phoneme independent of the phonetic properties.

III. N. S. Trubetzkoy (1890-1938), L. vBloomfield (1887-1949),
R, Jakobson (1896-1982) viewed the phoneme as the minimal sound
units by which meanings may be differentiated. They stated that the
features of the phoneme involved in the differentiation of words are
called distinctive. They can be found in contrastive sets.

¹ Plotkin V. Ya. Systems of Ultimate Phonological Units // Phonetica, 1976.— P. 82.

IV. The physical view on the phoneme was originated by D. Jones
(1881-1967). He defined the phoneme as a "family" of sounds. The
members of the family show phonetic similarity. No member of the
family can occur in the same phonetic context as any other member.

This view was shared by the American scientists B. Bloch and G. Träger. They define the phoneme as a class of phonetically similar sounds, contrasting and mutually exclusive with all similar classes in the language.

V. The problem of the phoneme can be solved on a "populational
basis" (J. A. Perry, 1974), that is on the definition of the phoneme as
a unit of an idiolect (D. Jones, K. Pike), a dialect (L. Bloomfield),
a multidialect — the phoneme is a unit of the English Language as
a whole (G. Trager, H. Smith), or a "supralect" — the phoneme is a
unit of a standard form, by which the dialects and idiolects may be
compared (J.A. Perry),

VI. L. V. Shcherba (1880-1944) was the first to define the phoneme
as a real, independent distinctive unit which manifests itself in the
form of allophones. Prof. V. A. Vassilyev developed Shcherba's theo­
ry and presented a detailed definition of the phoneme in his book
"English Phonetics. A Theoretical Course", where he writes that a
phoneme is a dialectical unity of three aspects: (1) material, real and
objective, (2) abstractional and generalized, (3) functional. It serves
to perform the following functions: (a) constitutive, (b) distinctive
and (c) recognitiye. V. A. Vassilyev states that phoneme is material,
real and objective because it really exists in the material form of
speech sounds, allophones. It is an objective reality, existing inde­
pendently from our will, or intention. It is an abstraction, because we
make it abstract from concrete realizations for classificatory pur­
poses; it functions to make one word or its grammatical form distinct
from the other, it constitutes words and helps to recognize them.

Questions

1. What is phonology? 2. How are phonemes discovered? 3. What is commutation test? 4. What is the difference between phonemes and allophones? How are they represented in writing? 5. How are allo­phones classified? 6. What patterns of phoneme distribution do you know? 7. Speak on the method of discovery of minimal distinctive features. 8. What are the main problems of phonological analysis?

9. What do you know about the history of the phoneme discovery?

10. What is a kinakeme? П. How is the phoneme defined by Soviet
scientists?

Exercises

Read aloud the minimal pairs below. Single out the phonemes which are contrasted.

judge—budge men—main say—sigh birch—-bird singe—sinned keen—coin try—Troy bays—buys lied—Lloyd

Position of the Soft Palate

pit — pin seek — seen thieve — theme sick — sing 60 In these pairs the oral consonants It, k, v/ are opposed to the na­sal /m, n,… The method of minimal pairs helps to identify 24 consonant pho­nemes in the English language on the basis of such an…

Gt;

characteristics of long vowels depend on the position they occupy in a word:¹

(a) they are the longest in the terminal position: bee, bar, coo, her,
law, car,

(b) they are shorter before voiced consonants: bead, bard, cool, term,
lard, card',

(c) they are the shortest before voiceless consonants: beet, Bart,
hoot, Turk, loose, cart.

To observe the quantity, or length of vowels in different posi­tions, it is advisable to do contrast exercises, e.g.

bee — bead — beet bar — Bard — Bart car — card — cart

5. Stability of Articulation

The principle provides the basis for the following distinctive oppositions:

(1) Monophthongs vs. diphthongs

bit—bait bid—beard dead—dared cot—coat

In these pairs the monophthongs /i, e, o/ are opposed to the diphthongs /ei, ia, еэ, эй/.

kit—kite debt—doubt John—join

In these pairs the monophthongs /i, e, o/ are opposed to the diphthongs /ai, au, 01/.

(2) Diphthongs vs. stable vowels

bite—bee bait —beet boat—boot pail—pool lake—leek beard—bead raid—rude care—coo

In these pairs the diphthongs /ai, ei, ю, эй, вэ/ are opposed to the jr., u:/.

According to the movement of the tongue within the articula­tion of the diphthong from the nucleus to the glide, diphthongs are subdivided into closing and centring.

 

The method of minimal pairs helps to establish 20 vowel pho­nemes in the phonological system of English vowels:

12 monophthongs: /i, e, se, a, v, o:, u, л, з:, э, i:, u:/> 8 diphthongs: /ei, ai, oi, 1Э, вэ, иэ, аи, эй/.

* There are other factors, that condition the quantitative difference of vowel phonemes (see p. 39).

Questions

1. What distinctive oppositions illustrate classificatory groups of rounded and unrounded vowels? 2. What distinctive oppositions illustrate classificatory groups according to the (a) horizontal, (b) vertical movements of the tongue? 3. Can the existence of front-re­tracted and back-advanced vowels be proved by minimal pairs? 4. Is the length of the vowels the only distinctive feature of long (tense) and short (lax) vowel phonemes like /i:, i/, /u:, u/, etc.? 5. How is vowel length conditioned positionally? 6. What distinctive opposi­tions illustrate the classificatory principle of vowel stability in ar­ticulation? 7. How are diphthongs subdivided according to the tongue movement from the nucleus to the glide?

Exercises

*1. Read these pairs of words. State what principles of vowel classification they illustrate.

(a) cod —cord (b) end —and (c) fir —for
not —nought ten —tan firm —form

cot —caught hem —ham turn—torn

body—border kettle—cattle bird —bord

(d) fool —full (e) am —aim (f) nor —no

pool —pull add —aid law —low

food —put man—main called —cold

tool —took lad —laid bald —bold

boot—book fat —fate caught—coat

2. Read these words and state what movements of the tongue make the vowel phonemes /e, з:, л, a:, u, i, эе, ж/ different,

bed—bird—bud—bard bid—bird—bud

lack—lurk—luck—lark lid—led—lad

hat—hurt—hut—heart big—beg—bag

cab—curb—cub kit—curt—caught
tan—turn—ton

*3. Read these pairs of words. State:

(a) what closing diphthongs are opposed in the pairs:

hay—high laid—lied no—now known—noun bay—buy tape—type hoe—how phoned—found

(b) what centring diphthongs are opposed in the pairs:

here—hair ear —air rear—rare fear —fair beer—bear tear—tare

*4. Read these words. Observe the allophonic difference of the /i:, ei, ж, з:/ phonemes conditioned by their positional length.

bee—been—beet lay—laid—late

dee—dean—deep may—maid—mate

O* 67

knee—need—neat say—save—safe
see—seed—seat sign — side—sight

lee—league—leak tie—tide—tight

core—cord—caught her—heard—hurl

saw—sword—sought sir—serve—serf

four—form—fork fur—furl—first

bore—board—bought were—girl—purse

What classificatory principle of vowels can be illustrated by the contrastiver pairs given below?

bid —beard pooh —poor too —tour at —out dead—dared ass —ice ate —eight ladder—lower pod —poured manner—minor letter—later mass —mouse

ControlTasks

Which of the given examples illustrate (a) high, mid, open and (b) front, mixed, back oppositions?

bead—bed—bad deed—dead—dad cab—curb—cub tan—turn—ton had—bird—bud hat—hurt—hut

Arrange these words into minimal distinctive pairs.

cart, wart, Boz, caught, dor, wrat, bars, cod, card, down, cot, cord

Sort out these oppositions into two columns: (a) closing diphthong vs. closing diphthong, (b) centring diphthong vs. centring diphthong.

known —noun beer—bear hay—high rear—rare phoned—found ear —air bay—buy no —now hear —hair tear — tear fear—fair hoe—how

tape —type

CONSONANT PHONEMES. DESCRIPTION OF PRINCIPAL VARIANTS

The first step to learn a sound is to isolate it. It means that for teaching purposes we single out the principal, or typical variant of the phoneme…

€8

final stage is to automatize the newly acquired abilities of the stu­dents.

Consonants are best of all learnt if the teacher directs the atten­tion of the students to tactile and muscular sensations of the organs of speech. In teaching to articulate sounds, diagrams and tables are very helpful.

Occluslve Noise Consonant Phonemes (Plosives)/p, b, t, d, k, g/

/P. b/

I.¹ In the articulation of /p/ the vocal cords do not vibrate, therefore /p/ is voiceless, but the force of exhalation and the muscular ten­sion is great, /p/ is fort is.

II. The lips are brought together and form a complete obstruction-,,
/p/ is labial, bilabial. In the pronunciation of the Russian /n, 61'
the lips are not spread and they are less tense.

III. The obstruction is broken with a kind of explosion, /p/ is occfif--
sive (plosive, or stop).

(1) In the production of /p/ noise prevails'over voice, /p/ is a noise
consonant.

(2) There is only one place of articulation in the /p/ production, so
it is unicentral.

IV. The air passes out of the mouth cavity, /p/ is oral.

/b/ is pronounced in the similar way, but the vocal cords are drawn together and vibrate, the force of exhalation is not great and the mus­cular tension is not strong, therefore /b/ is voiced — lenis labial, bilabial, occlusive, noise, unicentral, oral.

The English _/p/ is pronounced with aspiration, when it is followed by a vowel in a stressed syllable and not preceded by /s/.

The Russian /n/ is pronounced with­out aspiration. Aspiration is a slight puff of breath, which is heard immediate­ly after the "explosion" is accomplished. That is, when the contact is released, the glottis s still open, the air escapes from the mouth cavity with a plosion.

The Russian 161 is fully voiced in the initial position, the English /b/ is slightly devoiced. Cf. Bill— бил. /b/ is fully voiced between voiced sounds.

In the terminal position the Russian 161 can be devoiced almost completely: e.g. гриб /грип/, дуб /дуп/, etc.

The English /b/ is devoiced but slightly: sob, rob, mob.

The English /p,' b/ are never soft, whereas in Russian there are two independent phonemes /n — n7 and /6 — 6'/.'It can be proved by the existence of such pairs as: бил — был, пил — пыл, etc.

¹ The figures I, II, III, IV correspond to the principles of consonant clas­sification (see p. 25).

• Soft articulation of the consonant is called palatalization. Its simultaneous mechanism for /n, 61 closure is the following: as soon as the lips are pressed to form a complete obstruction — primary focus, the front part of the tongue is raised to the hard palate (front secondary focus).

To avoid palatalization of /p, b/ in the initial position when they are followed by front vowels it is advisable to do contrast exercises of the following type:

peel — пыл — пил bill — был — бил

Graphic Equivalents of the /p, b/ Phonemes

/p/ is pronounced when spelt as:

p pen /pen/—перо

pp happy /'haspi/—счастливый

gh hiccough /'Ьклр/—икота

/p/ is not pronounced:

(1) in the following words*.

cupboard /'kAbad/—шкаф, raspberry /'razban/—малина, receipt /nisi :t/—расписка

(2) in Greek words before n, s, t:

pneumonia /njuimaunja/—воспаление легких, pneumatic /njuimae-tik/—пневматический, psalm /sam/—псалом, Ptolemy /ibtemi/ — Птолемей

/b/ is pronounced when spelt as: b be /bi:/—быть bb ebb /eb/—убывать

/Ь/ is not pronounced after m and before t:

lamb /lsem/—ягненок, plumber /1р1лтэ/—водопроводчик, comb /kaum/—гребень, bomb /bum/—бомба, debt /det/—долг, doubt

/daut/—сомнение, subtle /'sAtl/—тон­кий, хитрый

А л/

I. /t/ is voiceless fortis, /d/ is voiced lenis;

II. lingual, forelingual, apical, alveolar;

III. occlusive (plosive, or stop)
(1) noise, (2) unicentral;

IV. oral.

The English /t/ is pronounced with aspiration, the Russian hi is not aspirated, see /p/.

The English /t, d/ are never soft, whereas in the Russian language

there are two independent phonemes: h/ and /т7, /д/ and /д7. It can be proved by the existence of such minimal pairs, as:

брат — брать дома — Дёма

The English /t, d/ are apical: the tip of the tongue is against the alveolar ridge, the Russian /т, д/ are dorsal: the blade of the tongue touches the upper teeth, the tip being passive and lowered.

To avoid palatalization of the English/t, d/ in the initial position, when they are followed by front vowels, it is advisable to do contrast exercises of the following type:

ты —tea /ti:/ тим —Tim /Um/ дик—Dick /dik/ тын—tin /tin/ тиф —teeth /ti:8/ дед—dead /ded/ тик—tick /tik/ дим—deem /di:m/ дел—dell /del/

Graphic Equivalents of the /t, d/ Phonemes

/t/ is pronounced when spelt as;

t take /teik/—брать

tt better /'bete/—лучше

ed stopped /sbpt/—остановился

th Thames /temz/—Темза, Thomas /ibmss/—Томас, Thomson

/ifomsn/—Томсон, Anthony /laentsni/—Энтони, Esther/lesta/—

Эстер

/t/ is not pronounced: (1) in the following words:

often /b:fn, Ып/—часто, Christmas /iknsmas/—рождество, boats­wain /ibsusn/—боцман, soften /Ып/—смягчать, bankruptcy bk/—банкротство, chestnut /itJesnAt/—каштан

(2) in words ending in -stle, -sten:

listen /ilisn/—слушать, hasten /'heisn/—спешить, castle /ikasl/ — замок, ostler /'usla/—конюх

(3) in French borrowings:

restaurant /irestro:rj/—ресторан, mortgage /1тэ:дк1з/—закладная, закладывать, trait /trei, treit/—черта, bouquet /ibukei/—букет

/d/ is pronounced when spelt as:

d do /du:/—делать

dd add /sed/—добавлять

ed begged /begd/—просил

ddh buddhism /'budizm/—буддизм

/d/ is not pronounced in the following words:

handkerchief /ihsenkatjif/—носовой платок, handsome красивый, Guildford /tgilfsd/—Гилдфорд, Windsor Виндзор

/к, g/

I. /к/ is voiceless fortis, /g/ is voiced lenis;¹

II. lingual, backlingual velar — the back part of the tongue is pres­
sed against the soft palate, or velum;

II. occlusive (plosive, or stop)

(1) noise, (2) unicentral; IV. oral.

The English /k/ is aspirated, see /p/, /t/.

The Russian /k/ is pronounced without aspira-
/ tion: кино, куль.

W- ._/ The Russian /r/ is fully voiced in initial posi-'M^^Sl ^ti01} .^an{* devoiced almost completely in the final p/if Д position: год, рог.

S [Л The Russian/к', г7 are pronounced with a more

^ С ( advanced position of the tongue, the central part of

—^ ( the tongue is pressed against the juncture of the hard

and soft palate — palatalization.

To avoid palatalization of the English /k, g/ it is advisable to do exercises of the following type;

акын — кино -= keen кило — keel кипа — keep

To observe the correct degree of aspiration of /p, t, k/ the following exercises are recommended:

1. Strongest aspiration in initial position, before a long vowel or
a diphthong:

tie, toe, party, taper, coat, tart, patter, cape

2. Less strong aspiration is manifested in the devoicing of /1, r,
w, j/ after /p, t, k/:

pray, proper, creep, try, quick, pleat, crow, clip, clean, queen

3. Less strong aspiration is manifested before a short vowel:
pity, bick, cut

4. Practically no aspiration:

 

(a) after /s/: stop, spit, score, sport, scope;

(b) in the final position: top, pit, cope, port, coke

Graphic Equivalents of the /k, g/ Phonemes

/k/ is pronounced when spelt:

k keep /ki:p/—-держать, иметь с before а, о, и:

can /kaen/—мочь, быть в состоянии, coat /lout/—пиджак»

пальто, cut /kAt/~порез

* Since only the first classificatory principle of the consonants /k, g/ i» different, principles П, III, IV are given for both.

с in terminal position:

music /'mjuzik/—музыка ck black /blsek/—черный, lock /bk/—замок ch in a number of Latin and Greek words:

chemist /'kemist/—-химик, character /'kserskta/—характер,

anchor /'эепкэ/—якорь, scheme /ski:m/—план, проект qu quick /kwik/—быстрый, banquet /'bserjkmt/—банкет cqu acquaintance /a'kwemtsns/—знакомство cc account /s'kaunt/—счет в банке sc sceptic /'skeptik/— скептик x=/ks/ except /ik'sept/—исключать, exhibition ^eksi'bijgn/ —

выставка gh hough /hok/—поджилки

/k/ is not pronounced:

(1) before n in initial position: knife /naif/—нож

(2) in the following words:

indict /m'dait/—обвинять, -victuals /'vitlz/—съестные припасы, muscle /'шлз1/—мускул

/g/ is pronounced when spelt;

(1) g before a, o, u, before a consonant and in terminal position i

go /дэи/—ход, ходьба, good /gud/—добро, благо, game /geim/— игра, leg /leg/—нога, significant /sig'mfikant/—значительный

(2) but also in the words:

get /get/—доставать, girl /дз:1/—девочка, gild /gild/—золотить,

give /giv/—давать, gig /gig/—кабриолет

gg egg /eg/—яйцо

gu guard /gad/—охрана

gh ghost /gaust/—привидение

x = /gz/ examine /ig'zeemm/—рассматривать, осматривать

/g/ is not pronounced:

(1) before n in initial and final positions:

gnat /nset/—комар, feign /fem/—притворяться, gnaw /no:/ — грызть, sign /sain/—знак

(2) when spelt as:

ng singer /'sing/—певец, tongue /Urj/—язык gm in the Greek words such as:

diaphragm /idaisfrsem/—диафрагма, paradigm /Ipseredaim/ —

пример, образец, phlegm /flem/—мокрота; хладнокровие,

but phlegmatic /fleglmaetik/ . ,t-Ä%j gh high /hai/—высокий, sigh /sai/—вздыхать, plough /plau/ —

пахать, light /lait/—свет

Questions

1. Is it possible to give a detailed description of a sound within the limits of a short definition? 2. What are the ways to learn a conso­nant? 3. To what classificatory groups do the phonemes /p, b, t, d, k, g/ belong according to the I, II, III, IV principles? 4. What is the difference between the English and the Russian occlusive consonant phonemes from the viewpoint of the tongue and the lips position? 5. What is palatalization? Is it a phonemic feature in English? 6. What is the difference between the English /p, t, k/ phonemes and the Russian /п, т, к/ phonemes from the viewpoint of voice-breath dis­tinction? 7. Prove that softness of consonants, in Russian is a pho­nemic feature. 8. How are the phonemes /p, t, k; b, d, g/ repre­sented in orthography?

Exercises

1. Define the consonant phonemes /p, t, k/.

2. Define the consonant phonemes /b, d, g/.

3. State articulatory differences between the English /p, t, k/ and the Russian

/n, t, к/.

4. State articulatory differences between the English /b, d, g/ and the Russian

/б, д, r/.

*5. Transcribe the words and read them. Observe the degree of aspiration: (a) the strongest, (b) less strong, (c) practically no aspiration.

(a) keep, pieces, teachers, people, purpose, curtain, turned, curly,
car, courts, parts, pause, take, time, ties, tears, cold, total, care, peer­
ing;

(b) till, kissed, tin, pity, penny, tell, tennis, Pendelton, campus,
Cambrian, taxi, put, took, cook, currents, colour, pumped, republic,
covered, tons, possible, cost, college, toss;

(c) spent, stay, stone, study, stick, started, splendid, experience,
extensively, basket, cleaning, explain, place, plan, classes, plain, creek,
crept, crop, platform, act, kept, looked

*6. Transcribe these words and read them. Avoid palatalization of consonants before the front and mixed vowels.

/p/ people, pay, permanent; /t/ eating; /k/ camp, kitchen; /b/ bil­liards; /d/ different, idea; /g/ get, again, girls

/b/ goes

/p/ pieces, repaired, purpose; ft! tears, take, turned; /b/ been, big, bed, back, both; /d/ idea, decided, didn't, day; /g/ get, guessed, girls, going

/p/ picture, period, expect, pair; til fifteen, instead, artist; /k/ keep, basket, vacation, campus; /b/ be, beside, embarrassing; la/ stu­dy, depths, days, Daddy; /g/ giggle, gets, girls, go

/p/ pink, experience, penny, pale; /t/ tin, wanted, take-, turned; /k/ drinking, came, candid, curly; /b/ been, beacon, bit, bad, Burton; /d/ condition, nodded, idea; /g/ give, get, girls

/p/ especially, pattern; /t/ still, potatoes, tulip; /k/ keep, occasion­al, can, occupy; /b/ be, sugar-beet, backbone; /d/ Dee, deer, muddy, dirt; /g/ gives, longest, regular

/p/ appealing, paid, pupils, perfect; /t/ teach, stick, Tuesday, tears; /k/ keep, looking, carriage, cold; /b/ be, obeyed, back, boat; /d/ indeed, dinner, duly, date; /g/ given, guessed, again, ago

/p/ planning, pit, repaid, passenger; /t/ stiff, city, grotesque, turns; /k/ keep, breaking, carriage, cold; /b/ being, best, back, Burlow; /d/ deal, ditties, dear, dead; /g/ getting, gave, go.

*7. Transcribe these words. Say how the /p, t, k; b, d, g/ sounds are represent­ed in spelling. Point out the letters which represent the mute sounds IP, t, k; b, d, g/.

happy, hiccough, cupboard, pneumonia, lamb, plumber, bomb, Thomas, Christmas, listen, whistle, bouquet, handkerchief, Wind­sor, chemist, anchor, banquet, except, muscle, ghost, gnaw, sign, tongue, diaphragm, sigh, plough, eight

Occlusive Nasal Sonor ants /m, n, rj/

In the /m, n, g/ phonemes only the second principle of classifica­tion is different.

/m/ is labial, bilabial: the lips are slightly pressed together, form­ing a complete obstruction.

In! is lingual, forelingual apical, alveolar: the tip of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge.

/rj/ is backlingual, velar: the back of the tongue touches the soft palate or velum.

All the other principles (I, III, IV) are similar.

I. in the articulation of /m, n, rj/ voice prevails over noise, so they
are sonor ants;

II. see above;

III. /m, n, rj/ are occlusive (plosives, or stops);

IV. /m, n, g/ are nasal: because the soft palate in the articulation of
/m, n, rj/ is lowered and the air passes out through the nasal cav­
ity.

. The English Im, n/ are longer than the Russian /м, н/ and louder in terminal positions; cf.:

doom /du:m/ — дум /дум/ balm /bam/ — бам /бам/

The pronunciation of the English /rj/ presents difficulties for Rus­sian students. There is no similar sound in the Russian language, /rj/ is articulated by the back part of the tongue, which is pressed against the soft palate and thus a complete obstruction is formed for the flow of air through the mouth cavity. It passes out of the nasal cavity. The tip of the tongue and the middle part of the tongue do not participate in the articulation of this sound. To prevent possible mistakes, care should be taken (a) to watch the position of the tip of the tongue, which is to be lowered, (b) to pronounce the final /rj/ as one sound.

Jt is advisable to do the following exercises:

1. kg—kg—kg—kg—gg—grj—grj—grj—dn—dn—dn—dn

2. sigggnig 3. sirj—säen—sog —saq
P^Döira sigz—saegz—si>nz,—элп
brigggrjig sig—saerj—sion—sat)

fflKKWl

4. /o — gk/

6m —ftrjk sab —sAgk Ihserp (ihsegga)— raen—rsegk 'sirjirj—isigkirj

5. /n —a.1 6. ingin_aut
sirj —sin sAn —SAn ibnrjirj_aut
raerj—raen дюд — дш idirjig^aut
haeg—haend 'nbin—'гюЬш 'sirjig^aut

Graphic Equivalents of the /m, n, n/ Phonemes

/m/ is pronounced when spelt:

m meat /mi:t/—мясо mm summer /'элтэ/—лето mb comb /kaum/—гребень mn autumn /loitam/—осень

/n/ is pronounced when spelt:

n no /пзи/—нет

пп dinner /'dina/—обед

en written /'ntn/—написанный

on button /IbAtn/—пуговица

/n/ is not pronounced in the words:] damn] /daem/—проклятье, solemn /isulem/—торжественный;

/rj/ is proijmoufced when spelt: ng long /ltln/—длинный, strong /strorj/—сильный nk sink /sink/—раковина

ing writing /iraitirj/—писание, reading /'riidirj/—чтение ngue tongue /tArj/—язык

/n/ is pronounced, when ng is immediately followed by a vowel <with the exception of the degrees of comparison of adjectives, where /g/ is pronounced), cf.:

younger /fJAgga/, longer /'bnjs/, singer /'sinja/, but: getting •on /igetuj _vun/, peering anxiously /'piano ^flkjash/, working in the garden /iwsrkin in оэ »gocdn/, coming out /'клпид _xaut/

In such combinations, the uvula takes part in the articulation of the sound /rj/.

/ncf/ /9/¹

younger 'getting _von

longer 'peering »anxiously

singer 'working in the _vgarden

'coming _kout

In the words: English, England, mingled, hungry the sounds /gg/ are represented in spelling by the letters ng.

Questions

1, Why are the /m, n, r/ phonemes referred to sonor ants? 2. What is the difference between /m, n, r/ from the viewpoint of the active ■organ of speech (II)? 3. What are the ways to teach students the Eng­lish consonant phoneme /rj/? 4. What is the difference in articulation between the English /m, n/ and the Russian /м, н/? 5. How are the sounds /m, n, r/ related to orthography?

Exercises

1. Define the sounds /m, n, n/.

2. State the articulatory differences between the English /m, n/ and the Rus­
sian /м, я/.

S. Describe the position of the tongue In the articulation of the English /m, n, q/. 4. Read these words and spell them. Translate them into Russian.

6m —9irj rsen—глд winz —wirjz win—wig SAn—элг| iteikn—iteikin sin —sirj глп —глп

*5. Transcribe these words, read and translate them into Russian.

yarn—young son—sung

thin—thing clean—cling

give in—giving not thing—nothing

drive in—driving go in—going

come in—coming own—owing

¹ The practice of such combinations helps to obtain a nasal-fvowel with­out a plosive.

/~/ — знак назализации /—/ — знак долготы

sane — saying break in — breaking look in — looking

*6. Transcribe these words. Underline /rj/ with a single line, /rjg/ with tw& lines, /g/ with a wavy line.

bring, lungs, England, younger, anything else, nothing of the-kind, willingly, taking it, mingled, sleeping, thing, hungry, fishing, morning, driving on, longer, younger, getting on, spring, seeing a friend off, clasping in both hands

*7. Transcribe these words and use them to explain the /m, n, g/ relation to orthography.

writing, reading, going, gone, when, sung, hungry, sunk, thing, thick, hanger, hanker, rang, rank, comb, autumn, English, mingled

Constructive Noise Consonant Phonemes (Fricatives) /s, z, f, v,

e. a, h, j, ₅/

I. /s/ is voiceless fort is, /z/ is voiced lenis;

II. lingual, iorelingual, apical, alveolar: the tip of the tongue rises
to the alveolar ridge, the sides of the tongue form a closure against

the upper side teeth;

III. constrictive, noise, unicentral with a round
narrowing;

IV. oral.

The /s, z/ phonemes are pronounced with a round narrowing or a groove, which is formed with the tip and the blade held close to the alveo­lar ridge. The sides of the tongue are raised forming a short and narrow groovelike or "round" depression — narrowing. The Russian /с, з/ are pronounced with the blade of the tongue close to the upper teeth (round narrowing). The tip of the tongue is passive and lowered (dorsal position).

Graphic Equivalents of the /s, z/ Phonemes

/s/ is pronounced when spelt:

s speak /spkk/—говорить

ss pass /pas/—проход, путь

с before e, i, y: certainly /'sertnli/—конечно, непременно, circle /'S3:kl/—круг, cynik /isinik/—циник

sc scene /si:n/—место действия (в пьесе, романе и т. д.), scis­sors /isizaz/—ножницы, scythe /saiö/—коса (серп), coalesce /kaualles/—соединяться, abscess /'sebsis/—нарыв

,78

seh in the word schism /sizm/—раскол, ересь ces in the middle of the word Leicester /'lesta/ tz in quartz /kwo:ts/—кварц

/s/ is not pronounced:

(1) in the words:

isle /ail/, island /laibnd/—остров, aisle /ail/—коридор, проход, Grosvenor /igrauvna/—Гросвенор

(2) in French borrowings:

corps /кэ:/—корпус, chamois /'Jaemi/—замша /z/ is pronounced when spelt:

z zeal /zi:l/—рвение, puzzle /'рлг1/—трудный вопрос

s if terminal or followed by vowels or voiced consonants:

houses /'hauziz/—дома, husband /'hAzband/—муж, walls /wo:Iz/—

стены, socialism /'saujghzm/ — социализм

ss in the words:

dessert /diiza;t/—десерт, dissolve /diizwlv/—растворять, hussar

/hu i zee/—гусар, p ossess /рэ' zes/ — владеть, scissors /' sizaz/—ножницы

If, v/

I. /f/ is voiceless fort is, hi is voiced lenis;

II. labial, labio-dental: the lower lip makes a
light contact -with the upper front teeth;

III. constrictive, noise, unicentral with a flat
narrowing;

IV. oral.

The narrowing between the upper teeth and the lower lip is flat or slit type.

Care should be taken not to devoice /v/ in terminal position. Cf.i

rove /rsuv/—ров /роф/ of /»v/—шов /шоф/

Graphic Equivalents of the /f, v/ Phonemes

/f/ is pronounced when spelt:

f fork /fo:k/—вилка

ff off /o(:)f/—более удаленный, дальний

ph physics /Ifiziks/—физика

pph sapphire /isaefara/—сапфир

ugh enough /i'nAf/—достаточный, laugh /lerf/—смеяться, cough

/fo:f, Ы/—кашлять, draught /draft/—сквозняк, tough /Ы/—

твердый, rough /глх/—грубый, неровный

/f/ is not pronounced in the words:

halfpenny /1Ье1р(э)ш/—полпенса, lieutenant Am. /lju:itenant/ and marine /la'tenant/, but: /lefitenant/—лейтенант

/v/ is pronounced when spelt:

v view /vju:/—вид f of /Dv/—от, о, об (preposition) ph nephew /'nevju/, but also /'nefju/—племянник, /'sti:vn/—Стивен

Stephen

/9, S/

I. II.

/9/ is voiceless fortis, /Ö/ is voiced lenis; ... lingual, forelingual, apical, interdental; III. constrictive, noise, unicentral with a flat or slit narrowing:

the air escapes over the whole surface of the tongue;

'There are no similar sounds in the Russian language. The place of incomplete obstructions is between the tip of the tongue (which may be slightly projected for /6/) and the rear of the upper teeth.

Energetic articulation oi /ö/ may also be interdental. It is usually post-dental with the tongue position a little behind the front teeth.

There are several mistakes the Russian stu­dents make in the articulation of /0, Ö/: they substitute /s, f/ for /Э/ and /z, v/ for /5/ and similarly the Russian /с, ф/ for /Э/ and /в, д/

1. To avoid the°^r/f/ for /9/ articulation care should be taken
to observe the position of the lower lip, which should be lowered
from the edge of the upper teeth so that the lower teeth can be

Cupti

2. To avoid the /s/ for /9/ articulation the tip of the tongue
should be slightly projected between the teeth.

3. To avoid the /z/ for /Ö/ articulation observe the second rec­
ommendation and make the vocal cords vibrate to produce the
voiced consonant /9/. , ,. ,. , _ЛЛЛГП

4. To avoid the /v/ for /Ö/ articulation observe the first recom­
mendation and make the vocal cords vibrate to produce the voiced
consonant /of. „ _n „, . , . _nUn

The substitution of /s, f, z, v, t, 1, d/ for /Э, Ö/ leads to pho­nological mistakes because they are different phonemes, ü ven below are contrast exercises, which may be helpful for distinguish­ing between /s, z, t, d/ and /9, Ö/.

/9/ vs. /s/

thick—sick mouth—mouse thumb—sum worth—worse

/e/ vs. /t/

thick—tick thought—taught three—tree heath—heat both—-boat fourth—fort

/Ö/ vs. /z/ /9/ -vs. /d/

seethe—sees then—den

lathe—laze though—dough

cl othe—close seet he—seed

breathe—breeze there—dare

other—udder

worthy—wordy

The exercise given below can be done to improve the pronuncia­tion of /6, ö/ in difficult combinations.

/S/ + /6/ this thing, sixth

/Z/ + /6/ his thumb

/S/ + /3/ pass the

/z/ + /5/ is this

/6/ + /s/ + /5/ Smith's there

/Ö/ + /z/-i-/Ö/ soothes them

Graphic Equivalents of the /6, 5/ Phonemes

/9, ö/ are always spelt th:

thick /6ikA—толстый, thin /0in/—тонкий, there /Зеэ/—там, with /wi5/—с (preposition)

/h/

I. voiceless fortis;

II. glottal;

III. constrictive, noise, unicentral, with a flat narrowing;

IV. oral.

The /h/ phoneme is pronounced when a strong stream of air is passing through the open glottis.

The articulators are in the position for the following vowel sound. A strong stream of air produces friction both at the glottis and throughout the vocal tract.

The lip and tongue position is that of the following vowel. In phonetic terms, /h/ can be considered a type of voiceless vowel. There are as many allophones of /h/ as there are vowels in English, which follow it,

Russian students often use the backlingual Russian /x/ instead of the glottal /h/. To avoid this mistake it is advisable to do contrast exercises of the following type;

хил —hill хала—hull худо—hood холл—hall хитр—heet

Graphic Equivalents of the /h/ Phoneme

/h/ is pronounced when spelt:

h how /hau/—как, hill /hil/—холм, hate /heit/—ненависть wh who /hu:/—кто, whom /hu:m/—кому

/h/ is not pronounced:

(1) in initial position:

hour /'am/—час, honest /'onist/—честный, honour /1опэ/—честь, heir /69/—наследник, heiress /'еэгк/—наследница

(2) in medial position:

exhaust /igizorst/—выпуск, выхлоп, exhibit /igizibit/—экспонат, vehicle /'vitikl/—■ автомобиль

(3) In the word shepherd /'Jepad/—пастух

IU 5/

I. HI voiceless fortis, /3/ voiced lenis;

II. lingual, iorelingual, apical, palato-alveolar, with a strong outer
lip-rounding and protrusion which contributes to the graver
character of the hiss as opposed to the sharper friction of /s, z/;

III. constrictive, noise, bicentral, with a front secondary focus,
with a flat narrowing;

IV. oral.

In the articulation of the /J g/ phonemes the tip and the blade are raised to the teethridge, forming a narrowing with the back of the alveolar ridge—primary focus. The front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate, forming the front secondary focus. The sounds /J, 5/ are soft or slightly palatal- jzed. The Russian/ш':, ж':/ are softer. They are spelt щ, жж as in: щель, дрожжи.

The Russian /ш, ж/ are hard sounds. They are produced with a back secondary focus and have the /ы/ colouring. To avoid the pronunciation of the Russian /ш':, ж':/ for the English /J¹, 5/ it is useful to do a contrast exercise of the following type:

шип—J"i:p шит —Ji:t ложе—' шин—J"i:n кожа—'mesa тоже—' шик—Ji:k

Graphic Equivalents of the /J", 5/ Phonemes

/// is pronounced when spelt:

g jg/р ss assure /э^иэ/—уверять si Asia /leiJV—Азия, Persia /1рз:|э/—Персия sion after consonants: pension /'penjty—пенсия, version /lva;Jn/—перевод; версия ssi session /'se/n/—сессия, mission /'mr/n/—миссия

sh she /Ji:/—она sugar /ijuga/—сахар assure /э^иэ/увер

ti ration /iraejn/—паек, notion /'nsujn/—понятие se nausea /'пэфэ, ino:sis/—тошнота ci suspicion /sasipijn/—подозрение се ocean /isuj'n/—океан

sci + a vowel in the middle of a word after the accented syllable: conscience /iktm^ans/—совесть, conscientious/ iknnji'enj'ss/— добросовестный, честный

sch schedule /ij*edju:l/ (/iskedju:l/j4/ra.J—опись; расписание ch in French borrowings:

machine /maijirn/—машина, chivalry /'J'rvsln/'—рыцарство,

champagne /Jaem'pem/—шампанское, chaise /Jeiz/-— почтовая

карета x = /kJ7 in accented syllables:

luxury /ilAkJari/—-роскошь, anxious /lEerjkJss/—беспокойный

but in unaccented syllables—/gz/:

luxurious /kg'zjuams/—роскошный, anxiety /sen(g)'zaiati/—

тревога, беспокойство

/5/ is pronounced when spelt:

g regime /rei^v.m/—режим, rouge /ru:g/—румяна

su pleasure /'plega/—удовольствие

si decision /di'sigan/—решение

zi glazier /igleigs/ (more often /igleizis/)—стекольщик

zu azure /isegs/—голубой, лазурный

ti transition /trsen's^n/—переход; переходный период

zh Zhukov /i3uknv/—Жуков

Questions

1. To what classificatory groups do the /s, z, f, v/ sounds belong according to the I, II, III, IV principles of consonant classifica­tion? 2. Why are the /s, z/ consonants considered to be unicentral with a round narrowing? 3. What is the difference in articulation of the English /s, z/ and the Russian /c, s/? 4. Why are the /i, v/ consonants considered to be unicentral with a flat narrowing? 5. What is the articulatory difference between the English /f, v/ and the Russian /в/? 6. What are the graphic equivalents of the consonants /s, z, f, v/? 7. To what classificatory groups do the /9, Ö, h, J if sounds belong according to the I, II, III, IV prin­ciples? 8. Why is it difficult to master the pronunciation of /9, 8/? 9. Why is it difficult to master the pronunciation of /h/? 10. Why do the sounds /J, 5/ belong to the subgroup of bicentral with a front secondary focus? Compare them with the Russian /ш, ж, ш':, ж':/.

11. What are the difficulties in mastering the /J¹, 3/ pronunciation?

12. What are the graphic equivalents of the consonants /8,9, h, J 3/?

Exercises

1, Define the consonant phonemes Is, z, f, v/.

2. State articulatory and phonemic differences between /s — z/, /f — v/,

S — f/, /z — v/.

*4. Read these words, spell them and translate them into Russian. 0m —sin 9ik —tik hi:0 —hi:t mAn8s 9ik — sik 6o:t — to:t Ьэио —baut Öi eitQ zäun

N

I. sonorant;

II. lingual, forelingual apical, alveolar: the tip and the blade are
slightly pressed against the alveolar ridge;

III. constrictive, lateral, bicentral, front secondary focus [1], back
secondary focus [I];

IV. oral.

There are two positional allophones of the /1/ phoneme in English: one is the "clear", or "soft" [1], it is pronounced with the front secondary focus; the other- variant of the /1/ phoneme is the "dark" [1], it is pronounced with the back secondary focus, i.e. the back of the tongue is raised towards the velum in a concave shape, it gives a back-central vowel type resonance to /1/.

back secondary focus

front secondary focus

The soft [1] is pronounced before vowels and /j/, the dark [I] is pronounced in word final position and before consonants.

In m

leap, lean, flee, Lewis bill, hill, mill, well, cold

In the articulation of the /1/ phoneme the tip with the blade of the tongue is pressed against the teethridge to form an obstruction. The air escapes rather freely along the sides of the tongue, which are lowered (usually only one side of the tongue is lowered) (lateral ar­ticulation).

The English soft [1] is not so soft as the Russian /л7 (in the artic­ulation of the Russian /л7 the front part of the tongue is raised still higher to the hard palate). To avoid extra palatalization in the artic­ulation of the English soft 111 the following contrast exercises are recommended:

лев —/left/ лес —/les/ лили—/Uih/

лип—/lip/, /H:p/ люк—/luk/
лед —/Ы/ лет —/let/

The Russian soft and hard /л, л7 are separate phonemes, because each of them serves to differentiate the meaning or words:

мол—моль лот—лёд ел —ель мел—мель дал—даль угол—уголь

Graphic Equivalents of the /I/ Phoneme

/1/ is pronounced when spelt:

I lay /lei/—класть

II well /wel/—колодец, родник; хорошо

/1/ is not pronounced in the following words:

would /wud/—тяга, желание, should /Jud/ (past of shall), talk /to:k/—беседа, walk/wo:k/—ходьба, folk/fsuk/—люди, balm /bam/— бальзам, calm /kcum/—тишь, calf /ka:f/—теленок, half /ha-f/—по­ловина, almond /lamand/—миндаль, salmon /'sseman/—лосось

Questions

1. To what classificatory groups do the /r, j, 1, w/ sounds belong according to the I, II, III, IV principles of consonant classification? 2. Why are the /r, w/ sounds Jconsidered median, /1, II — lateral, /j/ — palatal? 3. What are the articulatory differences between the

89

English /r, j, 1,1, w/ ana the Russian /p, й, л, в/? 4, What are the pho­nemic differences between the English /1, l and the Russian /л, л'/?

5. Why do the sounds II, w/ belong to the subgroup of bicentral with
a back secondary focus? 6. What are the ways to avoid mistakes the
Russian students make in mastering the/r, j, 1, w/ pronunciation?
7. How are the English constrictive sonorants related to orthography?

Exercises

1. Define the sonorants /r, j, I, w/.

*2. Read these words. Spell them. Underline the devoiced allophones of the hi phoneme.

rait, raid, raip, krai, "kraisis, prais, grei, bred, ri:d, ri:p, 'rhzn, rl:tf, ndg, risk, frend, frans, rig, rod, rsen, rsen, rot, run, greit, trai, ru-.l, ru:f, ru:ra, red, rest, iredi, pres, pn'zent, raej, rag, 'trhzn, intn, reu, raud, 'preznt

*3. Transcribe these words and read them.

rates, red, room, roast, round, rose, record, regular, railway, run­ning, really, Mary, married, friends, Crusoe, drive, prices, true, drowned, dressing, worry, forehead, hundred, temperature, carried, period, borrowed, currents, different, fever, comfort, heather, world, America, cigarette, modern, matter, mother, were, weary, scenery, curly, coloured, never, for, story, figure, work, doors, part, four, car

4. Read these sentences. Mind the linking hi in terminal position before a vowel which begins a new word.

1. Hotels are expensive in the South. 2. You can see Moscow grow before your eyes. 3. There is a theatre and a bar in the building of the new hotel. 4. There are hostels all over the place. 5. The weather gets nicer and nicer. 6. There are a number of small islands on thenv-er. 7. There are more sheep in Wales than anywhere in the British Isles. 8. In Hyde Park and Kensington Gardens you forget that you are in a big city. 9. Americans are a sociable people they say. 10. The local newspapers were |a surprise to me.

*5. Transcribe these words. Read them. Mind the /j/ articulation.

young, youth, your, year, yet, yesterday, used to, news, human, museum, suit, few, reviews, used, capsules

6. Read these words. Observe the light [i] before front, mixed and back vowels.

large, lots, look, luck, low, o'clock, looking, absolutely, flushed, following, lost, along, kilometer, fellow, slums, clean, let, late, glad­ly, realize, lived, letter, plain, blank, learned, willing, left, place, landed, linked, glorious, lovely, lonely, clasp, long, looked, London, clothes, glass, longer, applause, broom

7. Read these words. Observe the dark [1J in terminal ..position and before^a
consonant (not /j/).

jelp, meals, adult, cold, miles, old, world, rebuilt, will, special, restful, still, rule, wild, twelve, deal, I'll, chuckle, helps, bald, bold

8. Underline the letters, which represent in spelling the dark [i] with one line and the light [1] with two lines in the words given below.

felt, hills, always, least, holiday, letter, plans, like, soil, total, gentle, little, left, explain, slack, coloured, light-headed, small, people, hostel, sleep, believe, lit, reply, model, hotel, article, lasted, longer, looked, lunch, will, special, restful, laughed, long, low, smile, nearly, usual, led, final, place, deal, clapping, fell, loudest

*9, State the articulatory differences between the English and the Russian sounds,

M —/p/

■ ■ I'll —/й/ [1] —/л/ [Ц -M7

/w/—/в/

*10. Give some examples to prove that the Russian /л/, /л У are separate pho­nemes and the English [Ij, [I] are allophones of one and the same phoneme.

*11. What can you prove by the examples given below?

when—van worse—verse went —vent west—vest week — Vi с weary—very

*12. Transcribe these words. Use them to explain how the It, j, 1, w/ sounds are related to orthography.

yes, opinion, onion, unite, mute, neuter, Europe, sewage, would, talk, folk, balm, Lincoln, which, once, choir, whose, towards, sword

Occlusive-Constrfctive Noise Phonemes (Affricates) /tf, d$f

I. /t|7 voiceless fortis, /63/ voiced lenis;

II. lingual, fore- and raediolingual, apical, palato-alveolar;

III. occlusive-constrictive (affricates) bicentral
(front secondary focus) with a flat narrowing;

IV. oral.

From the articulatory point of view /tf, dg/ are indivisible clusters of two sounds: /t/ + / f/ = /tf/;

+ /₃/ /3

/tr, ds/ are bicentral. The first, or primary, focus is formed by the tip and the blade of the tongue, touching the back part of the teethridge; the contact is relatively slowly released into friction.¹ The second, or front secondary focus is formed by the front part of the tongue, which is raised to the hard palate.

There are two affricates in the system of Russian consonants — /ч7 and /ц/. The English /tf/ and the Russian K/ fare almost similar, but in the Russian /ч7 articulation the front part of the

¹ "The friction present in the affricate is of shorter duration, than that which characterizes the fricative proper." (Gimson A. C. Op. cit.— P. 166.)

tongue is raised higher to the hard palate, than in /tf/ articta-taffon. The Russian /ч¹/ is softer than the English /tf/.

In order to avoid /tj¹, d.5/ confusion the following exercise is recommended:

catches ловит — cadges попрошайничает riches богатства — ridges горные хребты lunch ленч — lunge бросок beseech умолять — besiege осаждать

There is no sound in the Russian language similar to /д§1, but where the Russian /ч7 is voiced under the influence of the following voiced consonants /б, д, г, s, ж/ we hear a sound similar to M5/:

меч златой с плеч долой ключ забыл врач дома луч заката

Care should be taken to pronounce both parts of the affricate /d5/ simultaneously. Cf.:

Джон—/dgrcn/ John Джек—/dgaek/ Jack Джейн—/eisern/ Jane-

The Russian /ц/ is one more affricate, which can be defined as* occlusive, noise, forelingual, dorsal, dental, voiceless. The English /ts/ is a cluster of two consonants—/t/ + /s/, e.g. cats /kgets/.

/tf/ is pronounced when spelt:

ch child /tfaild/—ребенок

ich kitchen /ikitfsn/—кухня

tu nature /'neitfa/—природа

ii question /ikwestfsn/—вопрос

te righteous /'raitfss/—праведный

Also in the word mischief /imistfif/—вред.

/ds/ is pronounced when spelt;

J joy /Ф1/—радость

g before e, i, у in French and Latin borrowings: giant /idJjarant/—гигант, gem /dgem/—драгоценный камень, gyps-/d3ips/—гипс

ge, gi in the middle of the word in an accented syllable, between the vowel sounds:

advantageous /isedvcmiteidgas/—выгодный, legion /ilüdsan/— легион ge at the end of words:

large /lads/—большой, singe /sincfe/—спалить, подпалить, but rouge /ru:g/—румяна

dg budget /ibAdgit/—бюджет, knowledge /1п»1к%/—знание du verdure /'vaidgs/—зелень de grandeur /fgraanclsa/—величие, великолепие di soldier /'вэиИзз/—солдат

ch Greenwich /igrmids/—Гринвич, sandwich /1ssenwidg/—сандвич, бутерброд

M

Questions

1. To what classificatory groups do the /tj¹, dg/ phonemes belong according to the I, II, III, IV principles of consonant classifica­tion? 2. Why are the /tf, dg/ sounds considered to be affricates? 3. What is the articulatory difference between the English /tj dg/ and the Russian /ч', ц/? 4. Is the presence of voice in /<%/ a pho­nemic feature? 5. What are the articulatory difficulties in the /tj¹, dg/ production? 6. How are the consonants /tj", dj/ related to orthography?¹

Exercises

I. Define the affricates /tf, cfc/.

*2. State the acoustic, articulatory and phonemic differences between ДГ, d*/' and /tr, dr, ts, tz, 0, da/.

"3. Read these words. Spell them and translate them into Russian orally.

tfin ifama if up dgim peids djem

tfek tfarid wutj¹ dgra tfeindg азо:<%

fes ntf tfoik id3imi ^em 'dgaimsni

fern inAtf kauf eid3 d§eek dgu:n

*4. Transcribe these words and read them.

cheap, cheek, chief, chin, channel, gentle, gently, germs, stranger,, middle-aged, rich, which, such, much, lunch, watch, age, page, large, college, cottage, sandwiches, Manchester, manufacturers, enjoy­ment, arrangement, engagement, detached, temperature, natural

5. Explain the articulatory differences (a) between the English /tf/ and the-Russian AiV; (b) between the English /dj/ and similar Russian comb -ti'ons.

*6. Transcribe these words. Use them to explain how the /tf, (I3/ sounds are related to orthography.

child, nature, question, righteous, mischief, joy, gem, gyps, advantageous, legion, budget, knowledge, grandeur, soldier, Greenwich'

SUBSIDIARY VARIANTS OF ENGLISH CONSONANT PHONEMES

Allophonic variants of consonants should be analysed from the viewpoint of CV, VC, CC connections. There are some rules to this effect that can be formulated in the following way.

1. In initial prevocalic position the number of allophones of con­
sonant phonemes is adequate to the number of vowels that follow
them.

2. Voiced consonants in initial position are gradually voiced
(strong end, weak beginning).

3. In terminal post-vocalic position the number of allophones-
is adequate to the number of vowels that precede them.

4. Voiced consonants in terminal position are gradually devoiced*
(weak end, strong beginning).

93;

5. In medial position voiced consonants are fully voiced.

6. Consonants are shorter in initial position than in terminal po­
sition.

7. Similar voiced consonants are shorter before voiceless, longer
before voiced and the longest in free terminal position.

8. In CC transition plosive consonants may lose their plosion or
its character may be modified: loss of plosion, nasal, lateral plosion.

9. In CC transition constrictive consonants may be pronounced
with terminated constriction under the influence of the following
consonant.

10. Plosive constrictives and affricates may be modified by the
influence of nasal /m, n/, palato-alveolar /j/, interdental /0, 5/, post-
alveolar /r/, bilabial /w/, etc.

Given below are the most important allophonic variants of Eng­lish consonant phonemes.

Phonemes /p, t, k, b, d, g, if, d$/ occur in all positions.

1. Aspirated: pass, picture, Peter. Aspiration may also be heard in
final position: top.

2. Modified by the following vowel: pea, pit, pet, pat, palm, pot,
paw, pun, put, pool, purr, parade, pay, pie, pound, poach, peer, pore,
poor.

3. Modified by the preceding vowel: Up, leap, step, clap, harp,
hip, thorp, stoop, up, chirp, wallop, tape, type, hope, sharp.

4. No release: supped, what place.

5. Release partly lost: spleen, splendid, helps, step, hop, top.

6. Lateral release: people, couple, apple.

7. Nasal release: open, happen,

8. Modified by /j/— palatalized: pewter;

/r/— post-alveolar: price, surprise, press; /9/— dental: depth; /w/ — labialized: Pueblo.

Generally preglottalized [?p] when syllable final before conso­nants — top, spin.

/b/

1. Modified by the following vowel: bit, bet, bad, bar, box, bought,
but, book, boot, burr, banana, bay, by, bow, boy, beer, boor, bore.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: grebe, nib, ebb, cab, garb, mob,
orb, tube, tub, verb, hubbub, babe, imbibe, globe.

3. Fully voiced between voiced sounds: labour.

4. Partly devoiced (a) initially: balm, bee, bet;

(b) finally: ebb, nib, cab.

5. No release: rubbed, sob bitterly, ebbed, stabbed.

6. Lateral release: able, table, bible.

 

7. Nasal release: ribbon, stubborn.

8. Modified by /j/ — palatalized: beauty;

It I — post-alveolar: bright; /1/ — released laterally: blight; /w/ — labialized: Buenos Aires.

N

1. Aspirated: table, time, Tim. Aspiration may also be heard in
the final position, e.g. rat.

2. Modified by the following vowel: tea, tip, ten, tan, tar, top, tore,
tub, took, two, term, tobacco, tale, tie, town, toy, tow, tear, tour.

3. Modified by the preceding vowel: eat, it, ate, at, art, hot, ought,
hut, hurt, put, host, but, eight, write, rout, wrote, adroit, licentiate.

4. No release: stop talking.

5. Release partly lost: strong, straw, eats, hoots.

6. Lateral release: bottle, little.

7. Nasal release: written, beaten.

8. Modified by /j7 — palatalized: tube, tuition;

/w/ — labialized: twice, twenty, /r/ — post-alveolar: try, tree, actress; 1Ы — dental: at the; /9/ — dental: breadth.

Generally preglottalized [?p] when syllable final, before conso­nants, e.g. hat, trick.

In colloquial speech /f/ may be reduced to /tj/. Intervocalic /t/ is frequently realised as a brief voiceless tap, e.g. better.

W

1. Modified by the following vowel: deep, did, dead, dad, darn_f
dog, door, duck, do, dirt, domination, day, die, down, daily, dome, dear,
dare, dour, door.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: deed, did, dead, dad, hard, odd,
horde, hood, brood, bud, bird, had, made, ride, crowd, annoyed, rode_t
beard, spared, bored, gourd.

3. Fully voiced between voiced sounds: udder, ready.

4. Partly devoiced (a) initially: do, done, down;

(b) finally*, hard, hood, mid.

5. No release: good day, what day, walk down.

6. Lateral release: middle, beadle.

7. Nasal release: garden.

8. Modified by /j7 — palatalized: duty;

It! — post-alveolar: dry, dress, 1Ы — dental: read those books. In colloquial speech /dj/ may be reduced to /d.3/.

N

1. Aspirated: Kate, kit, come; aspiration may also be heard in the
final position, e.g. rock.

2. Modified by the following vowel: key, kin,kept, cap, car, cot,

core, cup, cook, cool, curb, contain, cake, kite, cow, coy, coal, care, kur-saal, cord.

3. Modified by the preceding vowel: beak, pick, wreck, back, dark,
lock, fork, book, duke, duck, quirk, bulwark, take, like, hoik, oak.

4. No release: picked, pecked, liked, act, cook clean, took Kate.

5. Release partly lost: sky, school.

6. Lateral release: tickle, vocal, cycle.

7. Nasal release: taken, bacon, thicken.

8. Modified by /j7 — palatalized: cute;

/w/ — labialized: quake, quag, quaff; /r/— post-alveolar: cry, crab, cranberry; /S/ — dental: take them, pick those books. Generally preglottalized [?k] when syllable final, before conso­nants; e.g. duck soup.

The velar closure for Ik, y/ is advanced before front vowels, e.g, Jteen, geese; retracted before back vowels, e.g. coup, goose.

N

1. Modified by the following vowel: geese, give, get, gas, garden,
got, gore, gutter, good, goose, gilt, galloon, gay, guy, gown, goitre, go,
gear, garish, gourd.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: league, fig, beg, fog, morgue,
big, burg, plague, rogue.

3. Fully voiced between voiced sounds: agony, again.

4. Partly devoiced (a) initially: go, gain, guard;

(b) finally: big, beg, league.

5. No release: begged, plagued, big, game.

6. Lateral release: eagle, giggle.

7. Nasal release: dragon.

8. Modified by /j/ — palatalized; Gue;

/r/ ~ post-alveolar: great, agree; lÖl — dental: beg them; /w/ — labialized: Gwendolen.

N1

1. Modified by the following vowel: cheese, chin, chest, champ,
chaff, chop, chore, chough, chewing, chew, church, cherubic, chain,
<child, chow, choice, choke, cheer, chair, chewer.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: each, itch, fetch, match, tnarch,
scotch, scorch, putsch, pouch, much, search, such, aitch, coach.

3. Shortened in terminal position, when followed by HI: reached,
'hitched, fetched, matched, marched, searched, touched.

 

4. Lateral release: Rachel, satchel.

5. Nasal release: fortune, question.

6. Modified by /r/ ~ post-alveolar: teach Robert;

/Э/ — dental: teach them. /tf/ may be preglottalized [?tf], e.g. touch.

-96

1. Modified by the following vowel: gee, gibber, jet,-jam, jar, job,
jaw, just, July, Jew, journey, Japan, jail, jibe, joule, joy, Joe, jeer,
jurist.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: liege, ridge, ledge, badge, large,
abdge, gorge, Googe, stooge, judge, urge, age, oblige, gouge, voyage,
doge.

3. Shortened in terminal position, when followed by /d/i obliged,
forged, urged.

4. Lateral release: cudgel.

5. Nasal release: region.

6. Modified by It I — post-alveolar: urge Robert;

/ö/ — dental: judge them.

/<V is voiced between voiced sounds, e.g. hedges, partly devoiced in other positions, e.g. gin, badge.

N

1. Modified by the following vowel: fee, fill, fence, fan, far, fox,
four, fuss, foot, food, fir, forsake, fail, fine, fowl, foil, foe, fear, fare,
fore.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: leaf, if, chief, giraffe, chaff_t
off, cough, half, rough, turf, safe, life, loaf, coif.

3. Longer in terminal than in initial position, cf. thief — feet.

4. Lateral release: rifle, trifle.

5. Nasal release: often.

6. Modified by /j7: few;

/r/: fry; III: flag; /m/: lymph.

The exact point of contact may vary: it is more forward on the lip for front vowels, and retracted for back vowels, e.g. fee, far.] j

l/v/

1. Modified by the following vowel: veal, vicar, vest, vaccine, van­
tage, vocative, vortex, vulgar, vocation, voodoo, virgin, veil, vile, vow,
voyage, vote, veer, variance.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: leave, live, have, starve, of*
groove, love, serve, shave, five, rove.

3. Longer in terminal than in initial position, cf. veal — eve.

4. Partly devoiced (a) initially: vile;

(b) finally: live.

5. Fully voiced between voiced sounds: ever,

6. Partly devoiced (a) initially: very;

(b) finally: leave.

7. Lateral release: devil.

8. Nasal release: even.

9. Modified by /1/: Vladivostok;

4—182

/г/: Vryburg /'vraib3:g/ (г. Фрайбург в ФРГ); /j/: view. Place variation as for /f/.

/0/

1. Modified by the following vowel: theme, thin, therapy, thank,
thong, thunder, thirteen, Thalia, thane, thigh, thousand, thole, theatre.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: wreath, myths, death, maths,
laths, moths, fourths, tooths, births, faiths, south, Baths, paths.

3. Longer in terminal than in initial position, cf. moth — theme.

4. Nasal release: earthen, lengthen.

5. Modified by /r/: three;

/w/: thwart; /j/: fourth year, Ы: south night.

6. May be interdental in energetic articulation.

/8/

1. Modified by the following vowel: thee, this, then, that, thus,
they, ihy, though, there.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: breathe, with, booth, bathe,
tithe, mouth (v), loathe.

3. Longer in terminal than in initial position, cf. breathe — these.

4. Partly devoiced (a) initially: these;

(b) finally: writhe.

5. Fully voiced: heathen.

6. Nasal release: rhythm.

7. Modified by hi: with Rose;

1)l loathe you; M: bathe Nell.

8. Initial /5/ in unstressed syllables in an approximant. It is one
of the most frequent phonet с contexts for /6/, e.g. the, this.

M

1. Modified by the following vowel: see, sit, set, sat, sergeant, sock,
saw, suffer, soot, soon, sir, surround, say, sigh, sow, soil, so, sear, Sarah*
sourdine, sore.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: leafs (v), sniffs, chefs, giraffes,
chaffs, coughs, cuffs, hoots, serfs, safes, knifes (v), coifs, loafs.

3. Longer in terminal than in initial position, cf. sick — kiss.

4. Lateral release: whistle, castle.

5. Nasal release: listen, some /sm/.

6. Modified by /j/ — palatalized: suit, suicide;

/(k)w/— labialized: squirm, squish; /n/ — nasalized: snarl, snare; /m/— nasalized: smoky, smite; /5/ —dental: miss the train.

In present-day RP the increasing dominance of /su:/ over /sju:/ is observed, e.g. suit /su:t/.

N

1. Modified by the following vowel: zeal, zinc, zest, Zambia, Zama,
zoril, Zutphen, zoological, Zoo, zirconium, Zealand, zymosis, zounds,
zone, zero, Zar a.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: cheese, is, says, has, bars, was,
pause, choose, buzz, hers, letters, maize, rise, house (v), poise, rose, hears,
theirs, oars.

3. Longer in terminal than in initial position, cf. zoo — oars.

4. Partly devoiced (a) initially: zoo, zest;

(b) finally: houses, rise,

5. Fully voiced between voiced sounds: reason, season.

6. Lateral release: teasel, measles.

7. Nasal release: socialism, reason.

8. Modified by /Ö/ — dental: la the, is this;

/j/ — palatalized: is yet; /n/ — nasalized: buns, pines.

/s, z/ can be assimilated to //, g/ before palatal and pal a to-al­veolar consonants, e.g. gas showroom /gcej* ij*8tiru:m/, are these yours /э !c5i:5 'зэ:г/.

/J/

1. Modified by the following vowel: she, ship, shelf, shall, shaft,
shop, shore, shut, should, sheen, shirt, shallot, shape, shy, shower, show,
sheer, share, sure.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: clash, fish, fresh, smash, marsh,
wash, push, rush, douche.

3. Longer in terminal than in initial position, cf. ship — fish.

 

4. Lateral release: special.

5. Nasal release: station, nation.

6. Modified by /Ö/ — dental: wash them;

/j/ — palatalized: push your table;

/r/ — post-alveolar: shriek, shred;

/w/ — labialized: fresh water;

Im.!—■ nasalized: home ship, warm shop.

Ы

Occurs only in medial position, between vowels, e.g. measure. It may be syllable-initial and syllable-final in recent French loan-words, e.g. garage /igseraig/, beige /beis/, genre /sä:nr/.

1. Modified by the following vowel: gigue, Genevieve, jabot, gen­
darme, jongleur, jupe.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: prestige, barrage, rouge, beige.

3. Longer in terminal than in initial position, cf. jupe — rouge.

4. Partly devoiced (a) initially: jabot;

(b) finally: rouge.

5. Fully voiced: asure.

6. Lateral release: usual.

4* 99

7. Nasal release: decision.

8. Modified by /j/: rouge your face;

In/: sponge, orange, strange.

N

Occurs only before vowels. In phonetic terms /h/ can^be consid­ered a type of a voiceless vowel.

1. Modified by the following vowel: he, hit, help, happy, half, hip,,
horn, hut, hook, who, her, habitual, hay, high, how, hoist, hoe, hear, hare_f
houri.

2. Voiced between vowels and voiced sounds: behind, inhabit*
boyhood.

There are as many allophones of Ihl as there are vowels in English, the articulators are always in the position for the following vowel sound.

/w/

Never occurs finally,

1. Modified by the following vowel: we, wit, wax, waft, was, war_t
worry, Hood, woo, were, way, why, wow, woe, weir, ware, wooer.

2. Deyoiced following /t, k/ in stressed syllables: tweed, twenty,
twice, quite, queen.

Theie-may be complete devoicing, and /w/ will Ъе 'realized as a voiceless, labial-velar fricative /ju/. Some speakers have an addi­tional phoneme contrast, with /a/ used in all words beginning <wh>, e.g. where—wear /ллеэ—wee/.¹

3. Fully voiced between voiced sounds: awake, dwale, dwindle.

/j/ Occurs only initially before vowels.

1. Modified by the following vowel: ye, Yiddish, yes, Yankee, yard_t
yonder, your, young, you, youth, year, yourself, yak, yoick, yokel, yare.

2. Devoiced by the preceding consonants /p, t, k/: piano, tube,
curious.

3. Nasalized: mule, munition, new.

4. The sequences /tj, djV are often realized as /tf, dg/, e. g. won't
you /iwauntfu:/, couldn't you /fkudntfu:/.

It may also be heard in stressed syllables in "lazy speech", e. g. tune /tfu:n/_t dune /dsu:n/.

/r/

1. Modified by the following vowel: read, rid, rest, rat, raft, rock,
raw, rust, rook, roof, Röntgen, racoon, ray, right, row, roister, rear_f
rare, rural, roar.

2. The initial clusters /tr, dr/ are realized as post-alveolar affri­
cates.

* This phoneme is used by few RP speakers. It is borrowed from Ameri­can English.

3. In initial clusters, after fortis stops, /r/ is a completely voiceless, post-alveolar fricative, e.g. pressed, present. In the*clusters /spr, str, skr/ friction is not heard,- but there may be devoicirig: spread, scratch. In unstressed syllables and after fricatives /r/ i&partly/levoiced, post-alveolar fricative, e.g. Fred, shred.

According to the /r/ distribution the dialects of English can be divided into two groups: rhotic and non-rhotic. In rhotic dialects Id is pronounced in all contexts, these dialects include the majority oS American English varieties — including G. A. and Canadian dia­lects (including the West of England, especially the rural areas, Scots., and Irish). '

In non-rhotic dialects hi is not pronounced before a consonant or pause. 'These dialects include most of those spoken in England and Wales; American English spoken in the Southern and ■Eastern States, Australian, South African and most New Zealand.

In non-rhotic varieties /r/ is pronounced in word'boundaries, e. g. tar and feather /'tar on ifecte/, mother-in-law /'шлбэг m 'lot/.

This /r/ is called linking /r/. ' '

In non-rhotic English /r/ may be heard in places when there is no <r> in spelling, it is termed intrusive /r/, e. g. the idea of it /3i ai'dra г av it/, the data in the report /9э Meits r m Ээ riipo:t/.

The use of intrusive It! is considered by 'English native^sfpeakers as "lazy" or "uneducated".

/I/¹

1. Modified by the following vowel: lee, lit, let, lack, lark, lot, law,
tuck, took, loop, lurch,'lagoon, lay, tie, loud, loiter, tow, tear, lair, lure,
lore (light allophones).

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: feel, fill, fell, pal, snarl, doll)
fall, dull, bull, fool, earl; jewel,wale, whüe',öwt,oil,pole,ideal,annual
(dark allophones).

3. Devoiced after /p, k/; plea, plenty, clean, clever. Less devoiced
after /f," s/, e.g. flag, slap.

4. Devoiced and slightly fricative when syllabic, e.g. sparkle, rip*
pie, metal.

5. Fully voiced: Alice, fills, holes.

6. Shorter before terminal voiceless consonants than before termi­
nal voiced consonants and the terminal proper, cf.:

hilt—healed—doll insult—bald—Carl

belt—built—bull spoilt—bulled—jewel

asphalt—spelled—bill holt—fooled—vale

salt—snarled—bell false—hurled—well
fault—lolled—Nell

7. Modified by nasals, nasalized: signalman /'signlnran/;

by /w/ and rounded vowels, labialized, e.g. law,, railway,

* See p, 89:

by dental, before and after them /I/ becomes dental,

e.g. filthy, breathless.

When receded by front vowels dark [i] makes them more cen­tral and low, e. g. still, tell, balcony. Long /i:/ when followed by the dark [i] becomes /э/-Ике, e.g. meal [nrnl]. /ai/, /ei/ turn into /аэ/, /£Э/, e.g. mile [maafj, mail [meal].

Ы

1. Modified by - ne following vowel: me, mill, mad, mar, mop, more,
much, moustache, moon, murky, maroon, may, my, mouse, moist, mow,
mere, mare, moor.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: seem, him, them, ham, harm,
bomb, storm, room, broom, drum, worm, loathsome, name, time, home.

3. Shorter before terminal voiceless than before terminal voiced
and the terminal proper, cf.:

limp—limb—ham bump—harms—beam hemp—dims—drum lymph—aims—come

4. Lateral release: camel.

5. Devoiced after /s/, e.g. smack.

6. Palatalized after /j7, e.g. mate.

In!

1. Modified by the following vowel: knee, knit, nest, gnat, nasty,
not, nor, nut, nook, noon, nurse, narrate, nay, nigh, now, noise, no, near,
Nares, Nora.

2. Modified by the preceding vowel: spleen, pin, pen, pan, darn,
upon, born, fun, June, burn, London, pain, fine, down, join, own, an­
tipodean, Pitcairn, bourn, mourn, Brunnhilde.

3. Shorter before terminal voiceless than before terminal voiced
and the terminal proper, cf. tent — turned — ban.

4. Lateral release: panel, channel.

B. Modified by /j/—palatalized: new;

/Ö/—dental: on that;

/tf/. /<V> /J7. /3/—palato-alveolar: bench. 6. Devoiced after /s/, e.g. snack /snsek/,

Occurs only finally.

1. Modified by the preceding vowel: thing, song, restaurant, wrong,
young, orang, lengthy.

2. Shorter before terminal voiceless than before terminal voiced
and the terminal proper, cf. sink — singed — sing.

3. Modified by /k/: bacon (it forms a syllable with the preceding /k/).

4. Vowels preceding nasals are nasalized, e.g. wrong, Jamb, on.

Questions

I. How should the all op hones of the consonant phonemes be viewed and analysed? 2. What general rules do you know about the allophon-ic distribution of the consonant phonemes? 3. How can you prove that in initial prevocalic position the number of allophones of the con­sonant phonemes correspond to the number of the vowels that follow⁷ them? 4. How can you prove that voiced consonants in initial posi­tion are gradually, voiced? 5. How can you prove that the number of allophones of the consonant phonemes is adequate to the number of the vowels that precede them? 6. How can you prove that voiced con­sonants in terminal.position are gradually devoiced? 7. How can you prove that in medial position voiced consonants are fully voiced? 8. How can you prove that consonants are shorter in initial than in ter­minal position? 9,.Is the quantity of constrictives altered under the influence of the following consonant? 10. How do the phonemes /m, n, 9, 5, tf, d3, f, v/ modify the consonants that follow or precede them? 11. Is the quantity of similar consonants different when they are fol­lowed by voiceless arid voiced consonants? 12. In what position are voiced consonants characterized by maximal length? 13. What do you know about a) the distribution of /r, I, w, j/; b) the distribution of /p, t, k, b, d, g/; c) the distribution of /h/, /J/?

 

Exercises
1. Read these word cmbinations and	words. Observe (a) loss о
lateral plosion, (c) nasal plosion.
(a) /P/ (b)	/P/	(c) /P/
supped	people	open
top people	couple	happen
stop talking	apple
/b/	/b/	/b/
rubbed	able	ribbon
ebbed	label	stubborn
stabbed
sob bitterly
/t/	/t/	/t/
he went to see	bottle	written
I want to go	little	bitten
/k/	/k/	/k/
cook clean	tickle	taken
took Kate	cycle	bacon
	vocal	thicken
/d/	/d/	/d/
good day	middle	garden
what day	beadle	pardon
walk down	riddle	warden

/g/ /g/ /g/

begged eagle dragon

plagued giggle wagon

big game beagle Morgan

Quot;2, Read these words. Observe the character of the voiced consonants (a) in fully voiced position, (b) in initial position, (c) in final position.

(a) /b/ (b) /b/ (C) /b/

labour balm ebb

imbue bee nib

bet cab

/d/ /d/ /d/

Udder do hard

ready done hood

down mid

/g/ /g/ /g/

agony go big

again gain beg

guard league

Read these words. Observe (a) the longer character of the /tf, dg/ phonemes in terminal position and (b) the shorter character of the /tf, t^/ phonemes in pre-terminal position (when they are followed by /t, d/).

(a) each, fetch, match, scorch, putch, pouch, much, liege, ridge,
badge, large, lodge, gorge, George;

(b) reached, hitched, fetched, matched, searched, obliged, forged,
urged, judged

Read these words. Observe the longer character of the terminal allophones of the /f, v, s, x/ phonemes and their shorter character in initial position.

f —leaf, if, off, cough, half, rough, safe, life

— fee, fill, fence, fan, far, fox, four, fuss, food
v — leave, live, have, of, groove, love, serve

— veal, vest, vulgar, veil, vile, vow, vote, vet

s — face, tennis, various, piece, since, kiss, guess ■— sister, sea, sincerely, sick, sitting, see, sake z — is, his, birds, days, guards, fees, please

— zeal, zebra, zed, zero, zest, zip, Zion, zone, Zouave

Б, Readjthese words. Pay attention to (a) the pal a to-alveolar character of the consonant modified by the following phoneme /j/; (b) the post-alveolar character of the consonant modified by the following phoneme /r/t <c) the lateral character of the consonant modified by the following phoneme III', (d) the labialized character of the consonant modified by the foil owing pno-neme /w/.

(a) beauty, tube, cute, duty, Gue, few;

(b) bright, ,try, cry, dry, great, fry;

(c) blight, little, clever, middle, giggle, devil;
(a) twice, twenty, queen, Gwendolen, thwart -

JO4

Read these word combinations. Pay attention to the consonant modified by the following interdental /6, Э/.

at' the institute and the children

that's the latest news opened the window

on the hook on the radio

at the club about the'house

repairs the plug in the'bathroom

Control Task

Classify these word combinations according to the nature of modification within the group or at the end of it: (a) a loss of plosion,' (b) an alveolar replaced by a dental, (c) the light and dark /I/.

will you read louder, will you please, sit down; read text 1, write down, next time, repeat the noun, in the noun, at' ths blackboard, clean the board, glad to see you, what can I do, like to have it, on the seventh, round the city, and the guest, on this, what country,-good time, tea and cake, many people, don't like, I'd like, on the bo.y's plate, just thirsty, mashed potatoes, mustard please, got to eat, that pub, will you tell me, tell the girl, work now, difficult to dealj silk dress, but good, hit nose

VOWEL PHONEMES. DESCRIPTION OF-PRINCIPAL VARIANTS

Vowels are best of all learnt when the teacher directs-the-attention of the pupils to the position of the tongue and the lips.The descrip­tion of… No. I /i:/ The bulk of the tongue is in the front part of the mouth cavity, the space in the back part of the mouth cavity is…

IC9

No. 6 /d/

The bulk of the tongue is low in the mouth cavity, but not so low-as in the la/ articulation. It is farther in the mouth cavity than its the fa/ articulation. The back of the tongue is raised a little bit more-than for /a/. This sound is short and is pronounced with the energd-ic downward movement of the lower jaw. Thelips-are slightly rounded. The Russian /of is closer, /u/ can be defined as:

I. siighly rounded;

II. back (a) fully back;

open (b) broad variation of the low position of the tongue;

III. lax;

IV. short;
V. monophthong.

To practise the hi articulation contrast exercise should be done (see No. 7 /o:/ hereinafter).

Graphic Equivalents of the /of Phoneme

/D/ is pronounced when spelt:

о not /nut/—не

a what /wot/—что

au because /bi'kDz/—потому что

It is pronounced in the words:

Gloucester /igbsta/—Глостер, knowledge /inuhcfe/—знание, yacht /jut/—яхта, Warwick/'wDrik/—г. Уорик, Washington /'wdJirjtan/— г. Вашингтон

No. 7 /э:/

The bulk of the tongue is in the back part of the mouth cavity.

The back of the tongue is raised a little higher to the soft palate than

in the /o/ articulation. The lips are rounded and slightly protruded.

The opening between the lips is smaller than for

/d/. This vowel is long.

I. rounded;

Л. back (a) fully back;

mid-open (b) broad variation of the mid-open position of the tongue;

Ш, tense;

IV. long;

V, monophthong.

The Russian/o/is pronounced with the more rounded and protrud­ed lips. The bulk of the tongue in the articulation of the Russian M occupies the closer position. The Russian /o/ is a diphthongoid, it begins with the /y/ glide. Its allophonic transcription is [yo].

No

Not to confuse h:I with hi the following contrast exercise can be recommended:

cord—cod sport—spot caught—cot naught—not port—pot sought—sot

Graphic Equivalents of the /o:/ Phoneme

/э:/ is pronounced when spelt:

о before r: horse /ha:s/—лошадь

oo » floor /to:/—пол

ou » your /jo:/—ваш

oa » oar /d:/—весло

a » war /wd:/—война

eo in the word Georgia /'dgoidgis/—Грузия и штат Джорджия в США

oa broad /bro:d/—широкий

ough thought /ÖD:t/—мысль

a water /'wo:ta/—вода

au pause /pa:z/—пауза

augh taught /to:t/—учил

al walk /wo:k/—ходить

aw law Ih'.l—закон

No. 8 /u/

The bulk of the tongue is in the back part of the mouth cavity, but somewhat advanced. It is raised in the direction of the front part of the soft palate, higher than for /o:/. The lips are slightly rounded.

/u/ can be defined as:

I. slightly rounded;

II. back (a) back-advanced;

(b) broad variation of the high position of the tongue;

III. lax;

IV. short;

V. monophthong.

Graphic Equivalents of the /u/ Phoneme

/u/ is pronounced when spelt:

u put /put/—класть

о woman /'wumen/—женщина

oo book /buk/—книга

ou! could /kud/—мог (бы)

ull pull /pul/—тянуть

ush push /puJV—толкать

Ш

No. 9 /u:/

The bulk of the tongue in the /u:/ articulation is in the back part of the mouth cavity, retracted more than for /u/. The back of the tongae is raised higher in the direction of the soft palate than in the/u/ production, /u:/ may be a diphthongoid, then its beginning is a short /u/, which glides to more tense and labialized /u:/, which in the end has a /w/ glide. Allophonic transcription of the diphthongoid In:! can be represented as follows: [uu^w]. The Russian /y/ is pronounced with

the lips more rounded and protruded. The bulk of

the tongue is tense, /u:/ can be defined as:

I. rounded;

II. back (a) fully back;

high (b) narrow variation of the high position of the tongue;

III. tense;

IV. long;

V. monophthong.

In order not to confuse the pronunciation of /u:/ and /u/ which are different phonemes, the following exercise is recommended:

pool—pull toot —took fool—full coot —could goose—good pood—good boot —book

Graphic Equivalents of the /u:/ Phoneme

/u:/ is pronounced when spelt:

a true /tru:/—верный

oo tool ytu:l/—инструмент

о who /hu:/—который

ои soup /su:p/—суп

ui fruit /fru:t/-—плод

eu rheumatism /iru:matizm/—ревматизм, sleuth /slu:9/—сыщик

ew crew /kru:/—команда, экипаж

/ju:/ is pronounced when spelt:

и tune /tju:n/—мелодия не due /dju:/—надлежащий ugn impugn /raipju:n/—оспаривать ui suit /sju:t/—мужской костюм eau beauty /'bjurti/—красота

No. 10 /л/

_ш The central part of the tongue is raised in the direction of the juncture of the hard and soft palate. The tongue is a little higher than for /cc/. The lips are spread.

/л/ can be defined as:

I. unrounded;

II. central mid (a) narrow variation of the low

position of the tongue;

III. lax;

IV. short;

V. monophthong.

To practise the /л/ articulation contrast exercises are very helpful, e.g.

Bart—-but darn—done march—much carp —cup cart—cut calm—come dark —duck charm—chum

Graphic Equivatents of the /л/ Phoneme

/л/ .is pronounced when spelt:

u sun /8лп/—солнце

о come /клт/~приходить, London /Плпйэп/—Лондон

oo blood /bUd/—кровь

ou touch /UtjV—трогать, enough /i'nAf/-— довольно, достаточно

No. 11 /з:/

The central part of the tongue is raised almost as high as for /еЛ Its surface is more or less flat, the middle of the tongue is slightly higher. The lips are spread. Since.we cannot say that-the bulk of the tongue occupies the front or back position, it is convenient to define this position of the tongue in the /s:/ articulation as mixed.

/з:/ can be defined as: I. unrounded;

(a) (b)

3-

II. (a) mixed;

narrow variation of the mid-open position

(____ 4 ___ of'the tongue;

4 III- tense; IV. long; V. monophthong. ,

To practise the /§:/ articulation it is useful to do the following con-irast^exercises:

bed—bird all —earl torn —turn full—furl ten — turn four — fur board—b ir d pull — pearl Ben—burn form—firm court —curt took—Turk

Graphic Equivalents of the /з:/ Phoneme

/з:/ is pronounced When spelt:

ir birth /Ьз:6/—рождение у г myrtle /ima:tl/—мирт

Из

er serve /ss:v/—служить

ear earn /a :n/—зарабатывать

wor word /W3:d/—слово

our journey /'(^з:ш/—путешествие

ur turn Дз:п/—вертеть, поворачивать

No. 12 /э/

The central part of the tongue is raised a little bit less than for /з:/. The lips are neutral. In speech /э/ is easily affected by the neighbouring sounds and acquires different shades which are subdi­vided by G. P. Torsuyev¹ into (1) /л/ shade, (2) /e:/, (3) /ы/ shade, (4) /з7 schade.

1. /л/ shade of /a:/ phoneme is observed in final position, before
a pause: comma /1кг>тэ^А/, butter /<Ьл1э^л/.

2. /з:/ shade is observed in all positions, with the exception of
those mentioned (as 1, 3), for example: above /э'Ьлу/, along

/эПг/.

3. /ы/ shade is observed when /з/ is preceded or followed by the
/k, g/ phonemes: again /sigem/, ca«c/ /Ira'nael/.

4. /з7 shade is observed before the terminal /z, d/: te#m /Uetaz/,
covered

/э/ can be defined as:

I. unrounded;

II. (a) mixed;

(b) broad variation of the mid-open position of the tongue; Ш. lax;

IV. short;

V. monophthong.

Graphic Equivalents of the /э/ Phoneme

It can be stated, that almost every vowel in the unstressed po­sition can be pronounced as /a/, for example:

/e/ sense /sens/ смысл—nonsense /inunsans/ бессмыслица /ж/ man /тжп/ человек—milkman/ /Imilkman/ молочник /э:/ ford /b:d/ брод—Oxford /toksfod/ Оксфорд /a:/ sir /sa:/ сэр—yes, sir /'jes sa/ да, сэр

/ei/ relation /пЧефп/ отношение, связь—relative /Irelativ/ род­ственник, etc.

Questions

1. Why is it important to direct the attention of the pupils to the movement of the lips and the tongue in teaching vowels? 2. What do you know about vowel No. 1? (a) description of the articulation; (b) definition; (c) comparison with the similar Russian vowel /и/;

i Торсу ев Г. П. Фонетика английского языка.— М., 1950.—С ЮЗ* 111

<d) rules of reading. 3, What do you know about vowel No. 2? (a) des­cription of the articulation; (b) definition; (c) comparison with vowel No. 1; (d) rules of reading. 4. What do you know about vowel No. 3? (a) description of the articulation; (b) definition; (c) compari­son with vowel No. 2; (d) rules of reading. 5. What do you know about vowel No. 4? (a) description of the articulation; (b) definition; (с)-comparison with vowels Nos 3, 1,2; (d) rules of reading. 6. What do-you know about vowel No. 5? (a) description of the articulation; (b> definition; (c) comparison with vowel No. 10; (d) rules of reading. 7. What do you know about vowel No. 6? (a) description of the ar­ticulation; (b) definition; (c) comparison with vowel No. 7; (d) rules-of reading. 8. What do you know about vowel No. 7? (a) description of the articulation; (b) definition; (c) comparison with the Russian hi; (d) rules of reading. 9. What do you know about vowel No. 8> (a) description of the articulation; (b) definition; (c) comparison with vowel No. 9; (d) rules of reading. 10. What do you know about vowel No. 9? (a) description of the articulation; (b) definition; (c) comparison* with. Russian /y/ and English /it/; (d) rules of reading. 11. What d» you know about vowel No. 10? (a) description of the articulation; (b) definition; (c) comparison with vowel No. 5; (d) rules of reading. 12. What do you know about vowel No. 11? (a) description of the articu­lation; (b) definition; (c) rules of reading. 13. What do you know-about vowel No. 12? (a) description of the articulation; (b) definition^ {c) rules of reading.

Exercises

Transcribe these words. Read them. Observe positional length of the vowel

Ll:L

(a) see, we, tree, be, me, he, fee;

(b) seem, read, clean, seen, deal, people, easily;

(c) cheep, sweep, chief, treat, least, creek, week

Transcribe these words. Use them to explain the relation of the /i: pho­neme to orthography.

she, eve, concrete, feet, meat, niece, receive, fatigue, aesthete, key, quay

Transcribe these words. Read and translate them into Russian.

in, ill, big, wings, pit, stick, cliffs, spring, thing, sick, wrist, sil­ly, building, England, backing, bushes, guineas, lovely, busy, mi­nutes, going, dishes,¹ begins, college, women, commit, mercy, Britain, window, missis, symptoms, holiday, interested, excited, anything, hesitate, privilege, criticism, initiate, medicine

Transcribe these words. Use them to explain the relation of the hi phoneme to orthography.

life *S. Transcribe these words. Read and translate them into Russian. bed, said, help, tell, yet, head, tennis, weather, member, letter, dressed, setter, helping, anyway, envied, pleasure,…

No. 4 Ы

No. Б «Arnold laughed at the artist. 2. She started to have classes last autumn. 3.… No. 6 Ы

SUBSIDIARY VARIANTS OF THE ENGLISH VOWEL PHONEMES

Allophonic differences in the vowel system of the English language are conditioned by their distributional characteristics. All of them may occur in… /i:/ economy /a:/ arc /u:/ Uganda /ei/ eight /ia/ earshot /i/ image /v/ on /л/' utter /ai/ idea /еэ/ airway

N-i

The phoneme /k/ may occur in initial and in terminal posi­tions: epoch /ii:puk/, tea /ti:/.

/i:/ is preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: pee, be, we

Iabio-dental: feet, veal lingual, forelingual

dental, interdental: theme, the

alveolar: tea, deal, sea, zeal, lee, neat palato-alveolar: she, cheese

post-alveolar, cacuminal: read lingual, medio-Hngual: yield lingual, backlingual: key pharyngal (glottal): he

Iv.l is followed by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: leap, seem

Iabio-dental: leaf lingual, forelingual

dental, interdental: sheath, breathe

alveolar: eat, deed, spleen

palato-alveolar: leash, each

lingual, backlingual: teak, league

It may be diphthongized in open syllables and before lenis and na­sal consonants, See above.

Before dark [I] a centring glide may be heard.

RP speakers try to avoid any glide in /i;/ pronunciation as "vul­gar". Wide diphthongs are typical of Cockney, Birmingham, South­ern USA and other low prestige dialects.

N

The phoneme /i/ occurs in initial and in terminal position». It never occurs finally in a stressed open syllable: enough д1плг/_г pity /<piti/.

hi varies with /э/ in unstressed syllables, e. g. helpless, remove. In words with prefixes pre, de, re III is, pronounced, if the prefix i& used to convert a word into a new form, e. g. modify — premcdify_Y contaminate — decontaminate, /э/ instead of /i/ tends to be the domi­nant form, see the latest edition of the English pronouncing dictionary,

hi is preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: pit, wit

labio-dental: fit, vie lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: thin, this

alveolar: tin, din, knit

palato-alveolar: sftip, chin

post-alveolar, cacuminal: rid

lingual, medio-Iingual: yin, yill

lingual, backlingual: kin, give pharyngal: hit

Ы is followed by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: lip, nib

labio-dental: if, live lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: myth

alveolar: it, did, this

palato-alveolar: fish, ridge

lingual, backlingual: pick, big

Final /i/ in modern RP is considerably closer. In Yorkshire and Lancashire a very open vowel, almost like /e/ is found finally, e. g. Ялпе/. /i/ is centralized and lowered before dark lit, e. g. still, silk.

In modern RP /i/ is lower and more centralized than in more old-fashioned speech.

/e/

The phoneme /e/ may occur in initial position, but it never occurs terminally.

/el is preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: pet, bet

labio-dental: fence, vest äingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: ten, dead

palato-alveolar: shelf, chest

post-alveolar, cacuminal: rest

lingual, medio-lingual: yes

lingual, backlingual: kept pharyngal (glottal): help

Id is followed by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: step, ebb

labio-dental: chef lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: death

alveolar: ate, dead, less

palato-alveolar: fresh, fetch lingual, backlingual: wreck, beg

Some speakers have a more central quality, sometimes with a fi­nal /a/ glide.

/e/ is lowered and centralized before dark [II, e, g. tell, felt. Id is closer before velars, e. g. peg, peck.

The phoneme /ae/ may occur in initial position but it never occurs terminally.

/se/ is longer before Ienis and nasals in: bag, mad, man, sad, bad, that (the only example before a fortis).

Sometimes /se/ has a pharyngal constriction — creaky voice qual­ity.

In affected RP some speakers pronounce Ы with a following /a/ element — diphthongization.

/se/ is preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: pat, bad

Iabio-dental: fan lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: thank, that

alveolar: tan, dad

palato-alveolar: shall, jam

post-alveolar, cacuminal: ran

lingual, medio-Iingual: Yankee

lingual, backlingual: cat pharyngal (glottal): ham

Ы is followed by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: clap, cab

labio-dental: have lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental; hath

alveolar: hat, dad

palato-alveolar: smash, badge

lingual, backlingual: back, bag, sang

A very open /se/ is heard from young speakers.

M

The phoneme /a/ may occur in initial and in terminal positioni army /lami/, far /fa/,

/a/ is preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: palm, bar

labio-dental: far, vast lingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: tar, lark

palato-alveolar: shaft, chance, jar

post-alveolar, cacuminal: raft

lingual, medio-lingual; yard

lingual, backlingual: car, garden pharyngal (glottal): harm

/a:/ is followed by consonants characterized ass labial

5-182 ^I29

bilabial: harp

labiodental: starve lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, Interdental: health

alveolar: heart, hard

palato-alveolar: marsh, targe

lingual, backlmgual: bark

A very back quality of Ы is typical of old-fashioned speech or affected forms.

N

The phoneme hi may occur in initial position but it never occurs in terminal position. The lip rounding is very slight.

hi is preceded by consonants characterized as; labial

bilabial: pot, box

Iabio-dental: fox, fog lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: thong

alveolar: top, dog, sock

palato-alveolar: chop, fob

post-alveolar, cacuminal; rob

lingual, medio-Hngual: yonder

lingual, backlingual: cot, got pharyngal (glottal): hot

/d/ is followed by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: hop, mob

1 abio-dental: off, of lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: moth

alveolar: hot, old, was

palato-alveolar: wash

lingual, backlingual: lock, fog, wrong

M

The phoneme /o:/ may occur in initial and in terminal position: orbit /b:bit/, saw /so:/.

/э:/ is preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: port, bought, war

Iabio-dental: for lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: thorn

alveolar: talk, door, saw

palato-alveolar: shore, jaw

post-alveolar, cacuminal: raw

lingual, medio-lingual: your

lingual, backlingual: core pharyngal (glottal): horn

/x/ may be followed by consonants characterized as; labial

bilabial: orb

1 abio-dental: cough Singual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: north

alveolar: ought, pause

palato-alveolar: scorch, gorge

Hngual, backlingual: fork

Some speakers pronounce /ээ/ in words with ore, e.g. sore /sds/. It is heard in old-fashioned RP and prevails in dialects.

p:l may be pronounced instead of /иэ/ in: sure /Jo:/, you're /jo:/, poor /po.7. More open varieties of [oil characterize old-fashioned Beech.

/A/

The phoneme /л/ occurs in initial position, but it never occurs terminally. It is the shortest of the checked vowels.

/л/ may be preceded by consonants: labial

bilabial: but, worry

labio-dental: fuss, bulgar lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: thunder, thus

alveolar: tub, duck

palato-alveolar: shut, just

post-alveolar, cacuminal: ran

lingual, medio-lingual: young

lingual, backlingual: cut pharyngal (glottal): hut

/л! may be followed J3y the following consonants: labial

bilabial: up, tub

labio-dental: rough, love lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: doth

alveolar: bud, but

palato-alveolar: rush, judge

lingual, backlingual: duck, bug, young

/л/ is retractedjbeforejiark Ш, e.g. dull.

N

The phoneme /u/ occurs initially only in proper names of foreign origin, e.g. Uruguay. .

/u/ may be preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

6* 131

bilabial: put, book

labiodental: foot lingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: took, soot

palato-alveolar: should

post-alveolar, cacuminal: rook

lingual, backlingual: cook, good pharyngal (glottal): hook

/u/ may be followed by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: room lingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: put, hood, pull

palalo-alveolar: push, bush, cushion

lingual, backlingual: took, cuckoo

Some speakers pronounce back-advanced M as more central, e.g. good.

/u:/

The phoneme /Ü:/ may occur in initial and in terminal position: ooze /u:z/, undo /'An'du:/,

/u:/ may be preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: pool, boot

labio-dental: food lingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: two, do, noon

post-alveolar, cacuminal: roof

f

iala to-alveolar: shoe, June ingual, medio-Hngual: youth

lingual, backlingual: cool, goose pharyngal (glottal): who

/u:/ may be followed by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: stoop

labio-dental: hoof lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: tooth

alveolar: booth, choose, moon, fool

palato-alveolar: douch, rouge, pooch

lingual, backlingual: duke

/u:/ may be diphthongized in open syllables and before lenis or nasal consonants. It is a stable vowel before fortis. Similarly to I'vJ diphthongization /u:/ with a glide is considered "vulgar". All speakers pronounce /u/ with a very wide glide after 1)1, e.g. use, new. It is stable after [1].

/з:/

The /з:/ phoneme occurs in initial and in terminal position: early /ia:h/, fur /fa:/, further /^з:бэ/, refer /rife:/.

/з:/ may be preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: purr, burr

labiodental: fir, verge lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: thirst

alveolar: term, dirt, sir

post-alveolar (cacuminal): Röntgen

palato-alveolar: shirt

lingual, medio-lingual: year

lingual, backlingual: curb, girl pharyngal (glottal); her

/s:/ may be followed by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: kerb, worm

labio-dental: turf, serve lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: mirth

alveolar: hurt, bird

palato-alveolar: urge

lingual, backlingual: burg

Very open Ir.l is typical of old-fashioned speakers and affected RP.

The /э/ phoneme occurs in Initial and terminal position: about /31baut/, sofa /Iseufa/.

/э/ may be preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: banana, was

labio-dental: forsake, vocation lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: Thalia

alveolar: tobacco, domination

post-alveolar (cacuminal): racoon

palato-alveolar: Japan

lingual, medio-Iingual: yourself

lingual, backlingual: contain, galloon pharyngal (glottal): habitual

Ы may be followed by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: wallop

labio-dental: 0/ lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: Plymouth

S

alveolar: but, had, London

palato-alveolar: such

lingual, backlingual: bulwark

hi has two distinct allophones: 1) a closer one before velars, e.g. again; 2) an opener allophone in final position, similar to /л/, e.g. doctor, china, bitter, see above.

Idiolectal variations are connected with the degree of openness in terminal positions.

Questions

1. What is the basis for vowel allophonic differences? 2, In what position are vowels free from the influence of other sounds? 3. What vowel distributional characteristics are affected in a greater degree: qualitative or quantitative? 4. In what way are vowels influenced by neighbouring nasal consonants? 5. What are the factors that may af­fect vowel quantitative characteristics? 6. What is "positional length" of the vowels? 7. How is vowel quantity connected with accent?

8. Is vowel quality connected with the neutral vowel phoneme /э/?

9. Is vowel quantity connected with sentence stress and rhythm?

10. How do extralingu ist ic factors affect thelength <>f vowels? 11. What
is the difference between the English and the Russian unstressed vow­
els in terras of their qualitative characteristics? 12, How do adja­
cent consonants affect vowels? Which classificatory characteristics
of consonants are the most important in this respect?

Exercises

*1. Transcribe these words. Use them to illustrate the distributional charac­teristics of the /i:/ phoneme. Define the consonants which (a) precede and (b) follow it.

(a) we, fever, theme, sea, deal, cheeks, reaches, yield, he, meals,
me, needn't;

(b) grebe, leave, sheath, breathe, eat, feel, leash, each, beak,
league, seem, spleen

*2, Transcribe these words. Use them to illustrate the distributional charac­teristics of the kl phoneme. Define the consonants which (a) precede and (b) follow it.

(a) mist, big, fish, thinks, thing, did, sit, lift, giver, rich, kill*
hid;

(b) him, if, live, myth, with, is, bill, tin, ridge, pick, big"]

3. Transcribe these words. Use them to illustrate the distributional character­istics of the /e/ phoneme. Define the consonants which (a) precede and (b) follow it.

(a) wet, met, vest, then, rest, left, nest, chest, jet, read, yes, get,
help;

(b) ebb, them, chef, death, says, tell, pen, fetch, ledge, lengthy

4. Transcribe these words. Use them to illustrate the distributional charac­
teristics of the /je/ phoneme. Define the consonants which (a) precede and
(b) follow it.

(a) van, that, lamb, gnat, champ, jam, rank, Yankee, gas, ham;

(b) have, hath, match, badge, bag, sang

5. Transcribe these words. Use them to illustrate the distributional character­
istics of the /<l7 phoneme. Define the consonants which (a) precede and (b)
follow it.

(a) waft, mar, vast, tsar, lark, nasty, chance, jar, raft, yard, gar­
den;

(b) harm, starve, hearth, pass, bars, snarl, march, large

6. Transcribe these words. Use them to illustrate the distributional charac­
teristics of the Inl phoneme. Define the consonants which (a) precede and
(b) follow it.

(a) was, mop, vocative, thong, lot, not, chop, job, rob, yonder,
got, god, hot;

(b) mock, bomb, of, moth, was, doll, upon, scotch, dodge, fog,
wrong

7. Transcribe these words. Use them to illustrate the distributional character­
istics of the h:l phoneme. Define the consonants which (a) precede and (b)
follow it.

(a) war, more, vortex, thorn, saw, law, nor, chore, jaw, raw, your,
core, gore, horn;

(b) orb, storm, cough, north, horde, horse, all, thorn, gorge,
morgue

8. Transcribe these words. Use them to illustrate the distributional charac­
teristics of the /л/ phoneme. Define the consonants which (a) precede and
(b) follow it.

(a) worry, much, vulgar, thunder, thus, luck, nut, just, rub", young,
gutter, hut;

(b) tub, come, love, doth, buzz, dull, none, much, judge, bug, young

9. Transcribe these words. Use them to illustrate the distributional charac­
teristics of the /u/ phoneme. Define the consonants which (a) precede and

(b) follow it.

(a) wood, foot, soot, hook, July, rook, good, cook;

(b) room, puss, bull, putch, took

10. Transcribe these words. Use them to illustrate the distributional character­
istics of the laii phoneme. Define the consonants which (a) precede and
(b) follow it.

(a) woo, food, you, zoom, loop, noon, roof, chew, June, youth,
goose, who, zoo;

(b) broom, groove, booth, goose, choose, moon, stooge, duke, Bug

11. Transcribe these words. Use them to illustrate the distributional character­
istics of the /э:/ phoneme. Deline the consonants which (a) precede and
(b) follow it.

. (a) were, murky, virgin, thirst, lurch, nurse, Röntgen, church journey, year, girl, her;

(b) kerb, worm, serve, mirth, earl, burn, urge, quirk, burg 12. Transcribe these words. Use them to illustrate the distributional charac-

дшаi flirt foil и Phoneme. Define the consonants which (a) precede

fa) maroon, vocation, Thalia, lagoon, narrate, racoon, Japan, galloon, habitual;

(b) loathsome, of, Plymouth, jewel, letters, bulwark, agnostik Control Tasks

•I. Describe thOHophonic differences of the vowel phonemes Ik, i, e, аг, в, л,

v, a, u, it, a:, a/ in these words.

No. 1 /i:/

easily, sea, we, meals, cheaper, tree, fever, sleet, speaker, he, teach, keep, sheep

No. 2 hi

in, Ш, big, pit, silly, middle, shilling, thing, rivers, lived, hill

No. 3/e/

5^eI5'«i^{edl ten> ад1(1}' ^pence' ^weather> eleven, anyway, them, very, d, debt

No. 4 Ы

n_OTT4^pl£ⁿ! ^sad', ^ехаЯ¹' ^natural. imagine, shallow, strand, chan­nel, Jack, hats, pal, cab

No. 5 hi

bar, far, started, dancing, large, grass, half, harbour, card, yard

No. 6 hi

No. 8 /u/ good-bye^cook W°Uld' t0°k> l00kedt SOOt' room' should> y No. 9 /u:/

M

The phoneme /ai/ may occur in initial and in terminal position: •idea /atldia/, my /mai/.

/ai/ is preceded by consonants characterized as: "labial

bilabial: pie, by

labio-dental: fight lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: thigh

alveolar: tie, die

post-alveolar, cacuminal: right

palato-alveolar: shy, child

lingual, backlingual: kite pharyngal (glottal): high

Ы is followed by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: type, time

labio-dental: life lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: scythe

alveolar: night, ride_

palato-alveolar: oblige

lingual, backlingual: like

For contextual variations see /ei/.

The starting point may vary: a) close starting point, above /да/ characterizes affected speech; b) retracted starting point is found in Cockney and Birmingham.

/au/

The phoneme /au/ may occur in initial and in terminal posi­tion: owlish /'auhJV, now /nau/.

/au/ is preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: pound,- bound

labio-dental: fowl lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: thousand

alveolar: town, down

post-alveolar, cacuminal: round

palato-alveolar: shout

lingual, backlingual: cow pharyngal (glottal): how

138

/au/ is followed by consonants characterized as: lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: mouth

alveolar: rout, crowd

palato-alveolar; pouch

The first element is shorter before fortis, compare: /laut — laud/.

In prestigious old-fashioned speech the nucleus is more back. Very front starting points are found in many dialects.

/01/

The phoneme /01/ may occur in initial and in terminal posi­tion: oily /bill/, boy /boi/.

/oi/ is preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: point, boy

labio-dental: foil lingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: toy, doily

post-alveolar, cacuminal: roister

lingual, medio-lingual: yoick

lingual, backlingual: coy pharyngal (glottal): hoist

[oil is followed by consonants characterized as: labial

labio-dental: coif lingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: adroit, annoyed

palato-alveolar: voyage

lingual, backlingual: hoik

For contextual variations see /ei/,

A very close nucleus may be^heard only in dialects, e. g. Cockney.

M

The phoneme /эй/ may occur in initial and in terminal posi­tion: obey /aulbei/, no /пэи/.

/эй/ is preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: poach, bow

labio-dental: foe lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: thole

alveolar: tow, dome

post-alveolar, cacuminal: road

palato-alveolar: show, choke

lingual, backlingual: coal, go pharyngal (glottal): hoe

/эй/ is followed by consonants characterized ast labial

bilabial: hope

labiodental: loaf lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: growth,

alveolar: wrote, rode

palato-alveolar: coach

lingual, backlingual: oak

The first element of the diphthong /эй/ is reduced before foriis consonants, compare: coat — code.

Before dark [I] the second element is sometimes lost, the diph-Jhong reminds /з:/, e. g. coat /кэи!/—>-/кз:1/, saAo/e/haul/—+/Ьз:1/-

M

The phoneme /ю/ may occur in initial and in terminal position! eery /'юн/, idea /aiidia/.

[ю] is preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: peer, beer

labio-dental: fear lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: theatre

alveolar: tear, dear

post-alveolar, cacuminal: rear

palato-alveolar: sheer

lingual, medio-lingual: year

lingual, backlingual: Kßary pharyngal (glottal): hear

Ivdl is followed by alveolar consonants and sonorants Im, n, r, 1/: labial

bilabial: museum lingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: beard, fierce,^ librarian, centennial

post-alveolar: appearing

The nucleus may begin closer, nearer to hi.

Dialect speakers have very close starting points, as a sequence of I'v.l to /э/.

Very open endings are characteristic of affected speech.

This phoneme is highly variable, because the glide /э/ is more sonorous than the nucleus /i/. Thus /ia/ may be divided morpholog­ically into the nucleus and the glide in unstressed position, e. g. theoretical /Oiairetilral, 01-э-1геиЫ/.

Greater sonority of the glide may lead to the /je/, /ja:/ instead of /ю/ articulation, e, g. frontier /ifrAntra, tfrAntja/.

/1Э/ may turn into /t/ in terminal position: real /rial, nl/.

Jn present day RP year is pronounced as /ja:/.

М

The phoneme /еэ/ may occur in initial and in terminal position: airway /teswei/, air /еэ/.

/еэ/ is preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: pear, bear

labio-dentai: fare lingual, forelingual, apical

dental, interdental: there

alveolar: tear, dare

post-alveolar, cacuminal: rare

palato-alveolar: share

lingual, medio-lingual: Yare

lingual, backlingual: care pharyngal (glottal): hare

/еэ/ is followed by consonants: labial

bilabial: Shairp Üngual, forelingual, apical

alveolar spared, scarce

The chief variation is in the presence or absence of t he/э/off-glide.

The use of the stable nucleus /e:/ is on the increase, e. g. scarce /ske:s/, scares /ske:z/.

M

The phoneme /иэ/ may occur in initial and in terminal position: Urdu /'uadu/, poor /риэ/.

/иэ/ is preceded by consonants characterized as: labial

bilabial: poor, boor lingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: tour, dour

post-alveolar, cacuminal: rural

palato-alveolar: sure

lingual, medio-Iingual: your

lingual, backlingual: kursaal pharyngal (glottal): houri

/иэ/ is followed by consonants: labial

bilabial: gourmand lingual, forelingual, apical

alveolar: bourn

post-alveolar, cacuminal: rural

The phoneme /иэ/ is highly variable because the nucleus of this «diphthong is more sonorous than the glide. Its pronunciation may lead to phonological disintegration of /иэ/ into /u/ and /э/: in­fluence /'пШи-эпз/. In this case the morphological division takes place within the diphthong /иэ/.

Hl

The greater sonority of the glide may also lead to the substi­tution of /w/ for /u/: influence /imfluvrans/.

In an accented syllable /иэ/ may turn into /o:/, e. g. sure, poor_r your, you're and other high frequency words.

The phoneme /иэ/ may turn into /u/ before dark [I]: usual
/ljugual/ —у /IJU3U1/. .

The use of /o:/ in such words as tourist, moor, sure, furious, is becoming more and more frequent.

Questions

1. What is the difference between closing and centring diphthongs? 2. What can you say about distributional, contextual and idiolecta! peculiarities of the diphthongs /ei, ai, 01, та, еэ, из, аи, эй/?

Exercises

1. Transcribe these words. Read them. Use them to illustrate the distribution­
al characteristics of the /ei/ phoneme. State how I til is influenced by the
consonants which (a) precede and (b) follow it.

(a) way, may, veil, they, lay, nay, rate, jail, Yale, gay, hate:

(b) Ьабе, shave, bathe, pace, maize, pain, age, plague

2. Transcribe these words. Read them. Use them to illustrate the distribution­
al characteristics of the /ai/ phoneme. Define the consonants which^<a}>

[precede and (b) follow it.

(a) why, my, vile, thy, lie, night, ride, jibe, kind, high;

(b) imbibe, time, five, lithe, mice, rise, nine, oblige, Mike

3. Transcribe these words. Read them. Use them to illustrate the distribu­
tional characteristics of the /аи/ phoneme. Define the consonants which
(a) precede and (b) follow it.

(a) wow, mouse, vow, thou, loud, now, round, chow, gown, how;

(b) mouth (v), crowd, mouse, owl, down, gouge

4. Transcribe these words. Read them. Use them to illustrate ihe distribution­
al characteristics of the /oi/ phoneme. Define the consonants which (a)
precede and (b) follow it.

(a) moist, voyage, soil, loiter, roister, joy, yoick, goiter, hoist;

(b) coif, choice, oil, join, voyage, hoik

5. Transcribe these words. Read them. Use them to illustrate the distribution­
al characteristics of the /эй/ phoneme. Define the consonants which (a)
precede and (b) follow it,

(a) woe, mow, vote, though, so, zone, low, no, rope, joke, yolk,
go, hoe, known;

(b) home, rove, loathe, rode, close, pole, own, doge, rogue .

6. Transcribe these words. Read them. Use them to illustrate the distribution­
al characteristics of the Ы phoneme. Define the consonants which (a)
precede and (b) follow it.

Hi

(a) weir, mere, veer, theatre, sear, zero, lear, near, rear, cheer,
jeer, year, gear, hear;

(b) licentiate, beard, fierce, hear, ideals, antipodean

7. Transcribe these words. Read them. Use them to illustrate the distribution­
al characteristics of the /еэ/ phoneme. Define the consonants which (a)
precede and (b) follow it

(a) ware, mare, variance, there, Zara, lair, Nares, rare, chair,
Yare, garish, hare;

(b) Shairp, theirs, Pitcairn

8. Transcribe these words. Read them. Use them to illustrate the distribution*
at characteristics of the /иэ/ phoneme. Define the consonants which (a)
precede and (b) follow it.

(a) wooer, moot, zoological, luer, rural, chewer, jurist, your, gourd;

'b) gourd, arduous, Boers, annual, bourn

Control Tasks

*1. Sort out these words according to the distributional characteristics of the phonemes /ei, эй, ai, аи, oi, », вэ, иэ/ in relation to the (A) preceding or (B) following consonants. Follow the order of consonant classification: (1) Labial a) bilabial, b) lablo-dental. (2) Lingual, forelingual a) apical, (inter)dental, b) apical alveolar, c) apical palato-alveolar, d) cacuminal post-alveolar. (3) Lingual medio-Iingual. (4) Lingual backlingual. (5) Pharyngal (glottal),

/ei/

stay, pay, game, again, make, lake, lay, pain, case, day, weigh, rain, famous, ray, able, way, ache, late, lain, David, age, waste, pale, sane, taken, Wales, shape, face, gave, paint

/аи/

go, over, hope, boating, hotel, show, hold, only, follow, road, shoulder, poker, foe, gold, don't, old, cold, both, motor, total, bureau, social, though, low, poet, yolk, motive, so, nose, cosy, jokes, noticed

/ai/

why, high, kind, wife, wild, mild, lie, die, nine, while, silence, profile, right, eye, side, like, kindly, isles, eyes, idea, rise, climb, quite, my, bright, Michael, kite

/аи/

how, thousand, south, now, down, round, pound, mouth, drown, out, couch, found, loud, sound

Ы

join, enjoy, boy, point, coin, destroy, soil, employ, noise, joint

/в/

dear, near, year, idea, Crimea, here, severe, museum, accordeon, fear, clear, ears, cheer, theatre, real, realize, appear, period, tear, weary

/sa/

there, parents, anywhere, care, stare, bare', area, various, despair, square, stairs, carefully, pair, Mary, dare, farewell

/из/ ' sure, poor, tour, during, usual, moor, Europe

*2. Transcribe these words. Use them as examples to explain the rules for read­ing the letters in bold type which represent the diphthongs /ei, эй, ai, аи, э], за, еэ, us/.

south, sincerely, strangely, facilitated, noticeable, winding, poor, following, realize, motor, heighten, potatoes, over night, theatre, ju­rist, Mary, Michael Angelo, Jane Eyre, enjoyment, typhoid, Europe, dour

IV. ARTICULATORY TRANSITIONS

OF VOWEL AND CONSONANT PHONEMES

ASSIMILATION

a) by the complementary distribution of the phonemes, e. g. the fully back /u:/ becomes back-advanced under the influence of the preceding… The mid-open, front /e/ becomes more open followed by the dark 1 in hell,… In the word keen /k/ is not so back as its principal variant, it is advanced under the influence of the fully front…

Fr if

/p /

Assimilation is the chief factor under the influence of which the principal variants of phonemes are modified into subsidiary ones.

Assimilation is a modification of a consonant under the influence of a neighbouring consonant.

When a consonant is modified under the influence of an adjacent vowel or vice versa this phenomenon is called adaptation or accommo­dation, e. g. tune, keen.

When one of the neighbouring sounds is not realized in rapid or careless speech this process is called elision, e. g. a box of matches /э ibüks sv 'msetjiz/ may be pronounced without/v/in/sv/ —/э 'büks э 'msetfiz/, Waste paper /iweist ipeipa/ may turn into /iweis 'pei pa/ in rapid or careless speech.

Assimilation which occurs in everyday speech in the present-day pronunciation is called living.

Assimilation which took place at an earlier stage in the history of the language is called historical.

For example the present-day pronunciation of the words session, question, nature, occasion results from the historical assimilation of /sj/, /tj/, /zj/ in /Isesjan/, /ikwestjan/, /'nsetjur/, /alksezjan/ to /isejan/, /ikwestjbn/, /ineitjs/, /э'кехзэп/.

As far as the direction of assimilation (and accommodation) is con­cerned it can be:

1) progressive, when the first of the two sounds affected by assimi­lation makes the second sound similar to itself, e. g. in desks, pegs, the

»45

sounds /k/ and /g/make the plural inflection /s/ similar to the voiceless Jkl in /desks/ and to the voiced /g/ in /pegz/;

2) regressive, when the second of the two sounds affected by assim­
ilation makes the first sound similar to itself, e. g. in the combina­
tion^ the the alveolar It/ becomes dental, assimilated to the inter­
dental Id/ which follows it;

3) double, or reciprocal, when the two adjacent sounds influence
each other, e.g. twice /t/ is rounded under the'influence of /w/ and /w/
is partly devoiced under the influence of the Voiceless /t/.

To make the mechanism of articulatory transitions clear it should be viewed in detail in terms of the articulatory work of the speech producing mechanisms.

Each sound pronounced in isolation has three stages in its articu­lation. During the first stage the organs of speech move to the posi­tion which is necessary to pronounce the sound. It is called differently by different authors: initial stage, on-glide, excursion. During the second stage the organs of speech are kept for some time in the posi­tion necessary to pronounce the sound. This stage is called: medial stage, stop-stage, retention stage, the hold. Duringthe third stage the organs of speech move away to the neutral position. This stage is called final stage, off-glide, recursion, release.

There are two ways of joining the sounds: (1) merging of stages — when the final stage of the first sound merges with the initial stage of the second sound, loose type of articulatoiy transition and (2) in-terpenetration of stages — when the final stage of the first sound penetrates not only the beginning but also the middle of the second sound —close type of articulatory transition. For example in the word law the two sounds III and /o:/ are joined by way of merging their stages, see Fig. 17.

The first stage for III is the raising of the front edge of the tongue to the alveolar ridge and simultaneous lifting of the middle part of the tongue to the hard palate (the soft palate is raised). As soon as the tip of the tongue touches the teethridge and the sides of the tongue are lowered forming lateral passages, the vocal cords are brought together and made tense, the air passing between the vocal cords makes them vibrate: the vibrating air fills the pharynx, the mouth cav­ity and escapes through the lateral passages producing a clear allo-phone [1] of the /1/ phoneme —it is the medial stage of the lateral so-norant /1/.

- During the final stage of /II, the tip of the tongue moves away from the alveolar ridge and the whole of the tongue moves backwards to the low, narrow position for Ы, which follows III, the lips begin to get rounded for Ы, the end of III merges with the beginning of h:l. In the word /b:/ /1/₄ is followed by Л/„ and /l/₃ coincides with ly.lt, then follows /o:/_g and /o:/₃.

Interpenetration of stages takes place when sounds of a similar, or identical nature are joined together. For example: in the words act, bottle, vehicle the clusters /kt/, /tl/, /Id/ are pronounced with the "loss of plosion" — /kt/ and lateral plosion — /tl/, /kl/.

In /kt/ the medial stage of the sound /к/ — the back part of the tongue is pressed against the soft palate and a complete obstruction is formed — coincides with the initial stage of the sound /t/ — the tip of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge. The back part of the tongue is lowered only after the tip of the tongue is pressed against the alveo­lar ridge, the plosion of /k/ is not heard, see Fig. 18.

In the word bottle the sounds /t/ and /1/ are joined interpenetrat­ing their stages. At the moment of the hold of /t/, that is, when the tip of the tongue is pressed against the teethridge, the sides of the tongue are lowered, letting the air pass through these narrow air pas­sages (or one passage, if only one side of the tongue is lowered): the lateral plosion takes place — the hold. The vocal cords start vibrating

^Az ^B2 /----------- j-tt

M, &iX₃ B^ ^f B/ ^

Fig. 17. Fig. IS.

at the end of the hold for /t/ and the air passes through the pharynx and the mouth cavity along the lateral passages, producing the dark allophone II] of the III phoneme.

After the hold of /1/ is accomplished, the final stage of /1/ takes place, that is the tongue returns to the neutral position and the vocal cords stop to vibrate. In /kl/ the air also escapes laterally, the vocal cords start vibrating at the end of the hold for /k/. The velar closure is released by lowering the sides of the tongue.

In a sequence: affricate -f- a stop, the affricate is released in the usual way, e. g. sketchbook /'sketfbuk/ — the alveolar release of /p takes place in the usual audible way.

When a plosive is followed by the nasal /n, m/ the closure is released nasally: the soft palate lowers during the hold of the stop, releas­ing the compressed airstream through nasal cavity; /bm, tn, dn/ — nasal plosion.

When two identical sounds are joined together, a single but pro­
longed medial stage, or hold, takes place. There is no interruption
in the articulation of the two sounds, but we hear both of them due
to the change in their tenseness, e. g. hot tea /'hut 'ti:/, hard times
/'had 'taimz/. The tenseness decreases at the end of the hold of the
first sound and increases at the beginning of the hold of the second
sound. ■ ■ ■

Russian learners are apt to mispronounce English clusters /tn/, /dn/, /kt/, /gd/ because the mechanisms of the articulatory transitions from /t, d/ to /n/, from /k, g/ to /t, d/ in English and the Russian clus­ters 7пт/, /kt/, /гд/ are different, that is, the timing of the work of the power, vibrator, resonator and obstructor mechanisms in English and Russian is different. For example the Russian clusters /пт/, /kt/, /гд/ :in аптека, факт, где /т, д/ are pronounced with an audible plosion of 7п, к, г/.

Ü47

Cases of loose and close articulatory transition can also be observed

a) the mechanism of the aspiration of the initial stressed /p, t, W
in English. Aspiration is a delay in the onset of voicing. A brief peri­
od of voicelessness is heard after the hold of /p, t, k/, which sounds like
a puff of air after the release of the stop: Pete, tick, Kate /p^hi:t/,
/t^hik/, /k^heit/ before the vowel, which follows /p, t, k/. Russian /n,
T, к/ under similar conditions are unaspirated: the vocal cords begin
vibrating immediately after the release of the closure for /п, т, к/:
пить, Тим, кит — close CV transition;

b) the mechanism of the Russian CV transition, when a consonant
is followed by the front /и/ is more close than the English consonant
to /i/ or /j/ transition, compare: Pete — пить, neat — нить, beat —
бить, seen — синь, meal — мил, кет — лим, leap —■ лип, veal —
бил.

Both in Russian and in English the vowel articulation is superim­posed on the consonant articulation which precedes it, this results in palatalization. However the delay in the onset of the vowel is longer in English than in Russian, which is characterized by the more obvious softening in the Russian consonants during the CV transi­tion — close type.

c) Labialization in English (no lip protrusion) and Russian simi­
larly involves the lip-rounding in addition to the primary articula­
tion — clcse CV transition. Compare: Paul — Пол, tool — Тула,
tall — тол, pull — пуля, call — кол, boor — бур, cool — куль,
buck — бука.

When the two neighbouring sounds are affected by assimilation, it may influence: 1) the work of the vocal cords; 2) the active organ of speech; 3) the manner of noise production; 4) both: the place of articulation and the manner of noise production.

1) Assimilation affecting the work of the vocal cords is observed when one of the two adjacent consonants becomes voiced under the influence of the neighbouring voiced consonant, or voiceless — under the influence of the neighbouring voiceless consonant. For example, in the word gooseberry Is/ became voiced under the influence of the next voiced /b/ — regressive assimilation. In the combination what's this the voiced /z/became voiceless under the influence of the preced­ing voiceless HI— progressive assimilation.

In the process of speech the sonorants /m, n, 1, r, j, w/ are partly devoiced before a vowel, preceded by the voiceless consonant pho­nemes /s, p, t, k/, e. g. plate, slowly, twice, cry. In this case partial pro­gressive assimilation affects the work of the vocal cords both in English and in Russian; compare the above examples with the Russian: пла­мя, смена, кров.

In Russian voiceless-voiced distinction can be completely lost, compare: суп, субпродукты where /6/ undergoes complete regressive assimilation to /n/ which follows it. Russian learners should be care­ful about the cases where regressive assimilation may fully affect the work of the vocal cords due to the Russian habit of regressive voicing

£48

or "devouring, for example: blackboard — no voicing of /k/, setbauit — no voicing of HI, these people — no devoicing of /z/.

Two obligatory assimilations of this type in English are used ■to and have to (must), e.g.; / used to wear a suit /ai Jju:st t9 'wee э _ssju:t/ but / used two /ai iju:zd Ни:/ (шаш verb), / have to be ■early /ai 'haef ta bi _V3:h/ but / have two /ai 'hsev 'tu:/ (main verb).

In unstressed syllables the assimilations of Ienis to fortis (energy assimilation) are very frequent particularly with a) final inflexional /d, z/; b) grammatical items as, of; c) auxiliary verbs:

He collected stamps III

I was sure /s/

As cold as ice /s/

She refuses to answer /s/

of course III

James could tell him /t/

This assimilation is not observed in the most careful styles of speech.

2) The manner of noise production is affected by assimilation in cases of a) lateral plosion and b) loss of plosion or incomplete plosion. The lateral plosion takes place, when a plosive is followed by /1/. In this case the closure for the plosive is not released till the off-glide for /1/: the sides of the tongue are lowered and the air escapes along them with lateral plosion, e. g. please, candle, cattle (see above). In­complete plosion takes place in the clusters a) of two similar plosives like /pp, pb, tt, td, kk, kg/, or b) of two plosives with different points •offcrticulation like: /kt/, /ktf/, /dg/, /db/, /tb/. In the first case a single ■plosive is pronounced with a very long hold, e. g, attraction, lamp post, what time, went down, big cat. In the second case the ■closure of the organs of speech for the second plosive is made before the release of the first. So there is only one explosion for the two plosives. The first is incomplete, or lost, e, g. act, fact, good girl, hot bottle. In Russian similar plosives have the three stages, which results in two explosions for both plosives: акт, факт(&е& above).

The mechanism of the nasal plosion is similar in both languages: a plosive followed by the syllabic/n/, /m/has no release — the release is produced not by a removal of the closure, but by the lowering of the soft palate, the air escapes through the nasal cavity, e. g. but­ton, stop moaning, submarine. Nasal plosion takes place in Russian, <e. g. днем, обман, отнюдь.

Complete nasal and lateral assimilation may occur in the, there across word boundaries, e. g.:

turn the key /its:n бэ №'•/ —>-/%:п^_пэ Jki.7 open the door /teupn 5э _vda:/—*-/(эирп пэ _vdo:/ all the best /Ь: бз _vbest/-^/'o:l_wte _vbest/

3) Assimilation affects the place of articulation and the manner of noise production when the plosive, alveolar /t/ is followedjjy the

constrictive, post-alveolar /r/. For example, in the word tip alveolar /t/ becomes post-alveolar and has a fricative release.

In should you /ijud ju:/ the place of the alveolar /d/ can be changed into palato-alveolar /dg/, which is not a plosive but an affricate, under the influence of the palatal /j7. which follows /d/: /'Judgu:/.

ELISION

English spelling is full of "silent" letters which bear witness to historical elision, e.g. walk /wo:k/, knee /ni:/, knight /nait/,… The most common cases of contemporary elision are Ihe following: elision of… a) /ft, st, Jt, 6t, vd, zd, öd/ sequences: cleft palate /iklef ^paslst/

Control Tasks

port tar car порт Pete table cable торт power tower cow кот

V. ENGLISH PHONEMES IN WRITING

English dictionaries usually indicate the pronunciation of each individual word, because the English spelling system is very diffi­cult. This is… Graphemes for the system of vowels are the following: a, e, i, y, o, u oa, oe, oi, oy, oo, ou, ow, oe

J —ДЖ

к —к; иногда не пере­дается

For example:

exact /igizaekt/ игзэкт

Exmoor /leksraua/ Эксмур

Levy /H,i:vi/ Ливи

Dyson /idaisn/ Дайсон

Byrd /ba:d/ Берд

Vyrnwy /iv3:nwi/ Вернуи

Woi thing /Iw8:8ig/ Уэртинг, Вортинг

Urban /1э:Ьэп/ Эрбан

Whistler /iwisb/ Уислер

Furness /ifa:nis/ Фернесс

Proserpine /'prusapain/ Просерпайн,

Прозерпина (миф.) (название судна)

Louth /Iau9/ Лаут

Southend /'sauGend/ Саутенд

Highmoor /lhaimua/ Хаймур

Given below are several "difficult" Russian letters, which are transliterated in English in the following way:

ш—sh Sholokhov

ж—zh Zhukov

ч —tch, ch Chekhov, Tchaikovsky,

Cheboksary

щ—shch Shcherba

ы—у Bykov

x —kh Kharkov

я —ya Yalta

Questions

I. Why is it important to establish relationship between sounds and letters? What is a grapheme? 2. What are the types of graphemic reference? 3. What are the single-valued graphemes? What is a mono­graph? 4. What are the multi-valued graphemes? What is a digraph, txigraph, polygraph? 5. What are the simple and complex graphemes? 6. Give examples of /ae, e, u, u:/ connection with simple and complex graphemes, 7. Give examples of orthographic-phonemic-graphemic reference. 8. How are graphemes connected with phonology? 9. How are graphemes connected with morphology? 10. Give examples of phonemic reference of some graphemes. 11. How is orthography con­nected with lexicology, grammar? 12. What is the importance of ortho­graphy in differentiating homophones? 13. What diacritic functions-of graphemes do you know? 14. What is a syllabograph? 15. What is a morphograph? 16. What is the difference between transcription and transliteration?

Exercises

*I. Give graphemic symbols of the phonemes:

/s/ in the word city /k/ in the word cat /J7 in the word oceanic /(j)u:/ in the word beauty /л/ in the word courage /3/ in the word borough

2. Give some examples of English graphemes.

*3. Analyse these words from the viewpoint of the inventory of graphemes, phonemes, letters.

baobab, vest, duly, ship, dish, awful, dawn, light, high, work_t archaic, airy, laugh, watched

*4. Give explanation of the phonemic reference of the graphemes <r), (our), (ear) in the words;

right, afraid, pray, try, tour, tear, very, dry

*S. Give the phonetic reference of the tnorphograph "-ed" in the words:

worked, limited, pinned, begged, added, liked, barred, cared

*6. Transcribe these homophones. Translate them into Russian to prove the differentiator}¹ function of graphemes.

pact—packed barred—bard pair—pare — pear franc—frank

■wear—where wea t her—whether

scene—seen ■berth—birth ceiling—sealing sole—soul bare—bear pray —■ prey rain —reign pail — pale air—heir fined — find pains—panes teas—tease peace—piece

6*

feat—feet witch—which dear—deer bow—bough

bread—bred right—write

— rite peer—pier beach—beech hear—here fur—fir tale—tail male—mail sun—son beat—beet break—brake maize—maze weak—week currant—current serial—cereal

vain—vein —vane sell —cell sail—sale

compliment —comple­ment

hair—hare blue—blew

sea—see meat—meet heal—heel fare—fair cent—sent —scent rode—road team—teem hoarse—horse berry—bury gate—gait plain—plane key—quay

Divide these words into (a) syllabographs and (b) morphographs.

(a) meter, caring, beauty, sourly, surely, teacher, crying, sixty

(b) prays, praise, child's, readable, misrule, penniless, unknown,,
dislike, immortal, irrational

Explain the diacritic function of the graphemes <e), (r>, <ss), <rr), <tt>, (nn) by comparing these pairs of words.

a) man—mane hear—he pope—pore met—mete her —hen bar —bare sit —site sir —sit sort —sour

b) tony—bonny lazy —lassy

car —carry noted—knotted

m ar — merry wrote—ro tten

her —hurry later —latter

cut —cutter fuse —fussy

Transliterate these names by Russian letters.

Abel, Andrew;, Ann, Baldwin, Bernard, Dorothy, Esther, Gerald» Hugo, Ira, Jean, Jeremiah, Keith, Lionel, Mabel, Martha, Pius

Control Tasks

I. Divide these words into morphographs.

face, facing, nicer, choicest, racy, princess, age, raging, larger, urgent, bulgy, burgess, raged, changeling, outrageous, faced, nicely. hugely, engagement, changeable

Divide these words into a) morphographs, b) syllabographs. Transcribe them to illustrate phonemic references to syllabographs.

curing, fires, cheerless, cured, occurred, stirring, stirred, pining, pined, worker, working, worked, thoroughly, culture, nation, city, redder, cheering

Transcribe these words. Show the phonemic reference of digraphs and poly­graphs.

aid, fairy, said, fountain, portrait, villain, straight, August, sauce, laugh, authority, taught, east, tea, delay, beige, threepence, leopard_r people, freight, weigh

Fill in the blanks with fhe appropriate homophone.

(sole, soul) 1. My old boots need new .... 2. He was the... exe­cutor named in the will. 3. We had a nice ... for lunch. 4. He has a hard job to… (bare, bear) 1. In winter the garden looked ... .2. The pain was-almost more… (pear, pair) 1.1 have bought a . . . of shoes. 2. Please give me a. . ., I prefer them to apples. 3. They went away in…

Learn the extracts by heart. They illustrate difficulties of English pronun­ciation. Transcribe these extracts.

Rounded, wounded; grieve and sleeve Friend and fiend; alive and live; Liberty, library; heave and heaven Rachel, ache, moustach, slaven. We say hallowed but allowed People, leopard; towed but vowed Mark the… Between mover, plover, Dover Leeches, breeches, wise, precise; Challice, but police and lice,

VI. SYLLABLE

The syllable as a unit is difficult to define, though native speakers of a language are usually able to state how many syllables there are in a… According to J. Kenyon the syllable is one or more speech sounds, forming a… The syllable can be a single word: chair /tfea/, a part of a word: English /'in-gliJV, a part of the grammatical form…

И

пол

вопль

текст

жнец

взлом

фланг

спектр

вдрызг

монстр

но

ДНО

мгла ад акр астр

The peak or the crest of the syllable is formed by a vowel or a so-norant. The consonants which precede the peak and follow it are called slopes.

Vowels /эе, е, л, v, a,:, o:, ei, ai, аи, еэ, oi/ constitute almost always the peaks of prominence, /э, i, u, эй/ occur, as a rule, in unaccented syllables.

The consonant /rj/ never begins, /w/ never terminates the syllable.

The sonorants /w, r, j/ function as consonants, because they occur only before vowels: SVC structural type, e.g. /wi5, rait, jes/.

The sonorants /1, m, n/ can form syllables in terminal position, when preceded by a consonant, e.g. /'pi:pl, iga:dn, Ып, 'j 9

/

The structural patterns of syllables formed by sonorants with a preceding consonant in English are similar to V-f С patterns: CS written /intn/.

According to G. P. Torsuyev's data the syllabic structure in the English language of the combination consonant (or consonants) +a sonorant is characterized by the following data:

CS type — 40 combinations, CSC type — 90 combinations, CSCC type — 15 combinations, CCSCC type — 1 combination.¹

Syllable-forming sonorants in the combinations of the CS type are terminal /m, n, 1/. E. g.

earthen channel prism equal people garden often nation

¹ Торсу ев Г. П. Строение слога и аллофоны в английском языке. -1976.

■ М.,

written eagle even decision taken fortune listen rhythm able angel season camel

The combinability of syllable forming sonorants is the [fol­lowing: /1/ combines with all consonants except /6, 5/; /n/ com­bines with all consonants except /m, rj, n/; /m/ combines only with /6, 6, s, z, p/.

The distribution of consonants in the syllables of the CSC type is characterized by the following features: initial consonants may be represented by /p, b, t, d, k, g, f, v, 6, d, s, z, J¹, 3, tf, cfc, m, r, w, n/; the medial sonorants may be represented by /n, m, 1/; final consonants are represented by /t, d, s, z, 6/. E.g.

opens vacant goggles ovens patient

marbles enables merchant arrivals] angels

patterns mortals urgent heathens equalled

coupled student softened rhythms motions]

peoples gardens servant decent whistles

officials leventh present persons

panelled

The distribution of consonants in the syllables of the C£CC type is characterized by the following features: the initial consonant may be represented by /p, d, t, tf, dg, f, v, s, z, J 5, r/. The peak of syllable is represented by the sonorants /n, 1/, they are immediately followed by /t, d, s/; final consonants are represented by /t, s, z/. E.g.

innocents agents patents tangents parents serpents students servants pheasants errands patients scaffolds licensed merchants heralds

The syllables of the CSVSCC type: entrants /lentrants/, emigrants ^emigrants/, minstrels /'minstrels/, hydrants /lhaidrents/ can₅ be pronounced without (V)—CSSCC type, e.g.

emigrants /'emigrnts/ entrants /lentrnts/ minstrels /immstrlz/ hydrants /'haidrnts/

Russian terminal sonorants do not form syllables witlfconsonants, which precede them. However in some special cases: for stylistic purposes, or for the sake of rhythm, they may^become syllabic; e. g. ру-бль, во-пль, ви-хрь, дю-стр. Compare:

1. Была в Останкине зима.
Декабрь, число тридцатое и

2. Была в Останкине зима,

Декабрь, Тридцать первое

In the second variant the Russian /p/ is made syllabic for rhyth­mical purposes.

There are different restrictions on the possible consonant clusters in English and in Russian.

Final clusters in English are much more complex than initial ones. They express different grammatical meanings: plurality, tense, number, e.g. texts, mixed, glimpsed.

The structure of the Russian syllable is characterized by more complex and numerous initial clusters, they represent grammatical prefixes, e.g. вскрикнуть, всплакнуть, взрыв, кстати.

Syllables of the initial CC type constitute more than 50 combina­tions in English (except affricates and double consonants). Syllables •of the initial CC type in Russian constitute 236 combinations (affri--cates and double consonants including), e.g. speak, вчера.

Syllables of the initial CCC type constitute H combinations in English and 97 in Russian, e.g. street, вскинуть.

A number of combinations of the initial CCCC type constitute syllables only in Russian, there are no similar combinations in English, e.g. всплакнуть, взгляд, вздрогнуть.

The clusters/mh, sr, sj, fs, hr, stl/ never occur initially in English, compare with the Russian: мхи, сразу, сшить, всё, хруст, стлать.

The clusters /gr, str/ can occur only initially, /tn, dn, stl/ occur only finally, compare with the Russian: дни, стлать. The cluster (th) does not occur in Russian finally or initially.

In Russian СГ structural types of syllables are more common than ГС type. СГ syllabic types constitute more than half of all the struc­tural types in Russian. СГ together with ССГ types constitute 85%. In the Russian texts open syllables occur 3 times more often than closed ones. The most frequent pattern in English is CVC.

English VC, CVC structures are much more common than the Rus­sian СГ structural type. СГ prevalence in the Russian syllabic struc­ture results in the appearance of the vocalic element of /ъ, ь/ type in­side or before the CC clusters.

They most commonly occur in /гд, дг/ combinations, e.g. «игде», «отъгул».

Similar clusters in English are pronounced with the loss of plosion, e.g. good day, that cat.

THEORIES OF.SYLLABLE FORMATjQN AND SYLLABLE DIVISION

1. The most ancient theory states that there are as many sylla­ bles in a word as there are vowels. This theory is primitive and insuffi­ cient… 2. The expiratory theory states that there are as many syllables in a word as… pronounce several syllables in one articulatory effort' or expiration, e.g. seeing /Isi: 15/.

FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SYLLABLE

1. Constitutive Function Syllables constitute words, phrases and sentences through the com­bination of… 2. Distinctive and Differentiator^ Function

Give syllabic structural patterns of the following English and Russia«? words; characterize them from the viewpoint of their structure: open, cov­ered, etc.

(l)"pit, pat, pot, bet, tip, ten, top, took;

пол, бак, ток, час, воз, сон, так, нос (2) fact, taken, rhythm, prism, region, bacon, listen;

вопль, вепрь, жатв, битв, ритм, метр, типе, ЗАГС:

176'

(3) depths, lapsed, boxed, lisped, lifts, busts;
текст, жертв, горсть, шерсть, Минск, тем

(4) рЗал, price, shriek, fret, smoke, twice;
птах, прав, жнец, здесь, злак, сгиб

(5) do, go, so, dew, he, pea, pie, boy;
да, бы, фа, си, те, ту, ли

(6) spy, stay, blue, brew, pray, dry;
дно, пну, все, про, кто_; два

(7) ought, eat, orb, oak, eight, out, art,
он, ас, ад, ил, ух, ох, от, ах

(8) splay, spray, straw;
мсти, мзда, льсти, мгла

(9) ebbed, act, ask, else, aunt, apt
акт, акр, игл, игр, ость, альф

(10) aked, aunts, asks, eights, acts, elks
искр, астр

(11) spleens, springs, sprawls, sprains, strains, screams;
вскользь, всласть, вдрызг, взвизг

(12) serpents, patents, students, servants, licensed;
монстр, ханств, царств, земств, чувств

(13) spleen, split, street, struck, squeek, scroll;
взлом, вздеть, сдвиг, сгнить, взмах, взрыв

(14) twiddle, trance, plosion, flask, flint, thrust;
цвесть, фланг, внутрь, швабр, скетч

(15) stamps, tramps, twelfth, cleansed, clenched, еггапЖ»;
спектр, ксеркс, сфинкс

*2, (a) Divide these words into phonetic syllables, (b) Give their syllable structural^ patterns.

people, bugle, satchel, trifle, rhythm, April, equal, happens, mar­bles, patterns, dragons, urgent, servant, listened, heralds, errands, parents, tangents, patients, scaffold?

*3. Define the number of syllables in these words according to the sonority theory.

alone, female, unfortunate, insufficient, machine, unimportant, yesterday, aristocracy, appetite, remarkable, solecism, misunder­stand, inferiority, window, tomato, satisfactory, electrification

4. Mark initially strong consonants with a single line and initially weak con» sonants with^two Tines.

, la-пи, ii:-te, llai-пэ, 'sek-ta, 'bu-tl, U:-gl, , j

'глд-bi, 'mi-dl, 'wm-ta, 'лп-пэип, msep, film

S. Supply each word of exercise 4 with the corresponding arc of loudness.

a. Read these examples to prote the semantic importance^ of the correct syl­lable boundarv. Mark dose juncture by pluses,

a nation—an Asian see Mable—seem able

a nice house—an ice house it swings—its wings

the tall boys—that all boys хлеб с ухой—хлеб сухой

до дела ли—доделала по машинам—помаши нам

*7. Analyse these words from the viewpoint of phonetic and orthographic syllable division; transcribe and divide them into syllabographs.

work, working, worker, pined, pining, stirring, occurred, cured, cheerless, curing, cheering, firing, redder, nation, culture, thoroughly

Control Tasks

*1. Arrange these words into three columns according to the type of syllable structure: (a) closed uncovered, (b) closed covered, (c) open covered.

took, pray, lifts, at, straw, boy, aunt, texts, clenched, tip, pea, struck, strays, elks, thrust, bet, fact, fret, asks, ebbed, price

мгла, рад, ил, ЗАГС, кто, от, горсть, та, астр, скетч, взрыв, всласть, сфинкс, чувств, сон, Минск, гипс, здесь, злак, что

*2. Write out: (a) initially weak (finally strong) and (b) finally weak (ini­tially strong) consonants.

sit, lame, back, miss, sack, grave, tip, tide, top, late, mad, made, nine, till, cake, thick, bat, pin, pine, hate, act, ice, plot, face, hid, fate, stamp, spot, pile, land, mist, mole, mark, gold, cap, nose, fix, harm, merry, horn, start, form

*3. Divide these words into phonetic syllables.

comfortable, cottage, orchard, ground, kitchen, pantry, study, sev­eral, upstairs, bedroom, nursery, bathroom, furniture, modern, own, electricity, January, February, August, September, October, Novem­ber, December, Wednesday, Tuesday, Thursday

*4. Divide these words into syllabographs (where possible).

parents, fire, plural, rural, dinner, marry, disappear, speaking, writing, playing, walking, standing, passing, breakfast, potatoes, tomatoes, coffee, cabbage, bananas, berries, pudding, pears, beer, shopping, ironing, housework, mistake, fishing

*S. Mark with /+/ open Juncture in the examples below. Turn them into exam­ples with close juncture.

a name for it; a black tie; not at all; that's tough; I saw her rise; the waiter cut it; Isawthem eat; why choose; my train; keep sticking; gray day

VII. STRESS

Any word spoken in isolation has at least one prominent syllable. We perceive it as stressed. Stress in the isolated word is termed word stress, stress in connected speech is termed sentence stress. Stress is indicated by placing a stress mark before the stressed syllable: 14.

Stress is defined differently by different authors, B. A. Bogorodi-tsky, for instance, defined stress as an increase of energy, accompanied by an increase of expiratory and articulatory activity. D. Jones de­fined stress as the degree of force, which is accompanied by a strong force of exhalation and gives an impression of loudness. H. Sweet also> stated that stress is connected with the force of breath. Later, however, D. Jones wrote, that "stress or prominence is effected ... by inherent sonority, vowel and consonant length and by intonation."^l A, C, Gim-son also admits that a more prominent syllable is accompanied by pitch changes in the voice, quality and quantity of the accented! sounds.

If we compare stressed and unstressed syllables in the words. contract /'kuntrsekt/ договор, to contract /ta kan'trsekt/ заключать договор, we may note that in the stressed syllable:

(a) the force of utterance is greater, which is connected with more
energetic articulation;

(b) the pitch of the voice is higher, which is connected with strong­
er tenseness of the vocal cords and the walls of the resonance chamber;

(c) the quantity of the vowel /se/ in /ksn'trsekt/ is greater, the
vowel becomes longer;

(d) the quality of the vowel /se/ in the stressed syllable is differ­
ent from the quality of this vowel in the unstressed position, in which
it is more narrow than /'se/.

On the auditory level a stressed syllable is the part of the word, which has a special prominence. It is produced by a greater loudness and length, modifications in the pitch and quality. Their physical correlates are: intensity, duration, frequency and the formant struc­ture. All these features can be analysed on the acoustic level.

Word stress can be defined as the singling out of one or more syl­lables in a word, which is accompanied by the change of the force of utterance, pitch of the voice, qualitative and quantitative charac­teristics of the sound, which is usually a vowel.

In different languages one of the factors constituting word stress is usually more significant than the others. According to the most important feature different types of word stress are distinguished in different languages.

1) If special prominence in a stressed syllable or syllables is achieved mainly through the intensity of articulation, such type of stress is called dynamic, or force stress.

¹ Jones D. An Outline of English Phonetics.— 9th ed.— Cambridge, 1960,—P. 247.

2) If special prominence in a stressed syllable is achieved mainly
through the change of pitch, or musical tone, such accent is called
musical, or tonic. It is characteristic of the Japanese, Korean and
other oriental languages.

3) If special prominence in a stressed syllable is achieved through
the changes in the quantity of the vowels, which are longer in the
stressed syllables than in the unstressed ones, such type of stress is
called quantitative.

4) Qualitative type of stress is achieved through the changes in
the quality of the vowel under stress.

English word stress is traditionally defined as dynamic, but in faet, the special prominence of the stressed syllables is manifested in the English language not only through the increase of intensity, but also through the changes in the vowel quantity, consonant and vowel quality and pitch of the voice.

Russian word stress is not only dynamic but mostly quantita­tive and qualitative. The length of the Russian vowels always depends on the position in a word. The quality of unaccented vowels in Russian may differ greatly from the quality of the same vowels under stress, e.g. /a/ in травы, травь'1, травяной is realized as /a, 5, ъ/. /а, о, э/ undergo the greatest changes, /y/ and /и/ are not so much reduced when unstressed.

Stress difficulties peculiar to the accentual structure of the English language are connected with the vowel special and inher­ent prominence. In identical positions the intensity of English vowels is different. The highest in intensity is /a/, then go /э:, з:, i:, u:, se, u, e, u, i/.

The quantity of long vowels and diphthongs can be preserved in (a) pretonic and (b) post-tonic position.

a) idea /ai'dra/ b) placard /iplsekad/

sarcastic /saiksestik/ railway /ireriwei/
archaic /aikeuk/ compound /ifc»mpaund/

All English vowels may occur in accented syllables, the only exception is /э/, which is never stressed. English vowels /i, u, эй/ tend to occur in unstressed syllables. Syllables with the syllabic /1, m, n/ are never stressed.

Unstressed diphthongs may partially lose their glide quality.

In stressed syllables ^English stops have complete closure, frica­tives have full friction, features of fortis/lenis distinction are clearly defined.

tress can be characterized as fixed and free. In languages with fixed type of stress the place of stress is always the same. For example in Czech and Slovak the stress regularly falls on the first syllable. In Italian, Welsh, Polish it is on the penultimate syllable.

In English and Russian word-stress is free, that is it may fall on any syllable in a word:

on the first—^mother мама

on the second—occasion возможность

on the third—deWnation детонация

Stress in English and in Russian is not only free but also shifting. In both languages the place of stress may shift, which helps to differentiate different parts of speech, e.g. Hnsult—to ШтИ, Hmport—to imSpoH. In Russian: $зко, кисло, мало are adjectives, узко, кисло, мало are adverbs, что, как, когда may be pronouns and conjunctions: что читает—что читает; как вошел—как вошел; когда уехал—когда уехал.

In English ^billow is морской вал, beUow—вниз. Similar cases can be observed in Russian: му~ка—мука, замок—замок, кружки — кружки.

When the shifting of word-stress serves to perform distinctive function, V. Vassilyev terms this suprasegmental phonological unit form distinctive accenteme, when it serves to distinguish the meaning of different words, its term is word-distinctive accenteme.

Stress performs not only distinctive function, it helps to constitute and recognize words and their forms (constitutive and recognitive functions).

Strictly speaking, a polysyllabic word has as many degrees of stress as there are syllables in it. American and English phoneticians give the following pattern of stress distribution in the word examina­tion. They mark the strongest syllable with primary accent with the numeral 1, then goes 2, 3, etc.

It is more convenient and vivid to represent this pattern of stress distribution in the following way.

i g, ъ аз m r n ei
3 2 4 i

,0 p 8 tlUinit I 1 ^V Ь 1 5 3 1

 

i 1
1	/
v	/
4j	V

The number of lines corresponds to the number of syllables in a word. The primary strongest stress mark is placed on the highest line, the second strongest one is placed on the second line, the other stress marks are distributed on the appropriate lines according to accentual sonority. The vertical lines, drawn perpendicularly to the lowest line vividly show the degree of accentual sonority of the syllabic phonemes and the height of the voice pitch, which is bigger within the strongest syllable, smaller within the second strongest syllable, etc.

The least strong syllable has the lowest sonority and pitch (5 in

our examples). Such graphs help to visualize the greater intensity of syllables with primary and secondary stress compared to other,, less prominent syllables.

There is some controversy about degrees of the word-stress termin­ology and about placing the stress marks. Most British phoneticians term the strongest stress primary, the second strongest secondary and all the other degrees of stress weak. The stress marks placed before the stressed syllables indicate simultaneously their places and the point of syllable division: examination.

American descriptivists (B. Bloch, G. Träger) distinguish the following degrees of word-stress: loud /i/, reduced loud /"/, medi­al /V, weak, which is not indicated. H. A. Gleason defines the degrees of stress as primary 14, secondary /"/, tertiary /7, weak /"/, (H. Sweet distinguishes weak /^v/, medium, or half-strong (:{, strong /7 and extrastrong, or emphatic stress /;/.

V. A. Vassilyev, D. Jones, R. Kingdon consider that there are three degrees of word-stress in English: primary—strong, secon­dary—partial, weak—in unstressed syllables. For example: certif­ication /|S3:tifiikeiJ"ön/—the second and the third syllables have weak stress, which is not marked.

Most English scientists place the stress marks before the stressed syllables and don't mark monosyllabic words.

Some American scientists suggest placing the stress marks above the vowels of the stressed syllable, e.g. blackbird /ЫгекЬз:а/. They place the stress marks even on monosyllabic words, e. g. cat, pen_Y map.

In the Russian word-stress system there are two degrees of word accent: primary and weak. The stress marks in the Russian pho­netic tradition are placed above the vowels which are the nuclei of the syllable, e. g. усердней с каждым днем гляжу" в словарь.

The dictionary of accent for TV and radio workers gives some words with two stresses /7-—primary, /7—secondary (побочное), e.g. автокорд, водоналивной, библиотековедение, агрометеорология.

Some scientists distinguish between stressed and accented syl­lables. O'Connor states: "Accent ... is indicated by stress and pitch combined. If a stress occurs ... without a downward step in pitch, the word concerned is not accented." Stressed syllables in the text have the symbol /i/, accented syllables have the sym­bol /'/. For example: Are you doming back again onfiunday? On tonograms stressed and unstressed syllables, according to O'Connor, * correspond to big and small dots.

Gimson suggests marking accentual elements in the following way:

j —a black dot with a downward curve corresponds to the syllable, receiving primary accent.

¹ O'Connor I. D., Arnold 0. F. Intonation of Colloquial English.— L.„ 1959.—P. 18.

18a

„°—a black dot, or a "white" dot correspond to the syllable receiving secondary accent.

.—a tiny dot corresponds to the unaccented syllable. Here are some accentual patterns for 2-, 3-, 4-, 5-, 6- and 7-, 9- syllable words according to Gimson's representation:¹

• * unknown ; female, window * •

• ■ • quantity, yesterday; tobacco, tomato ■ ' •

• * ■ remarkable, impossible; conterattack > ■ • ^a

............. affiliation, consideration;rehabilitate • • > • •

° ■ ■ • » • ■ • characteristically

• • • • • unilateralism; internationalization • ■ • • • ■ »•

In spite of the fact that word accent in the English stress system is free, there are certain factors that determine the place and different degree of word-stress. V. A. Vassilyev describes them as follows:

(1) recessive tendency, (2) rhythmic tendency, (3) retentive tend­ency and (4) semantic factor.

(1) Recessive tendency results in placing the word-stress on the initial syllable. It can be of two sub-types: (a) unrestricted reces­sive accent, which falls ön the first syllable: father /'faSs/, mother /'тлЗэ/ and (b) restricted recessive accent, which is characterized Ъу placing the word accent on the root of the word if this word Jias a prefix, which has lost its meaning: become /Ь1<клт/, begin bi

(2) Rhythmic tendency results in alternating stressed and un­
stressed syllables, e.g. pronunciation /ргэ|1Ш151^!е1,Гэ>п/.

(3) Retentive tendency consists in the retention of the primary
.accent on the parent word, e.g. person—personal /ip3:sn—^!ps:snl/.
More commonly it is retained on the parent word as a secondary
accent, e.g. similar—similarity /'stmib—isnniHaentr/.

(4) Semantic factor.

Given below are the rules of word-stress in English:

1. In words of 2 or 3 syllables the primary stress mostly falls
on the first syllable, e.g. terror, Cabinet, ^sensible.

2. In prefixal words the primary stress typically falls on the
syllable following the prefix, e.g. impossible, recall, behind.

3. In prefixal words with prefixes having their own meaning,
the place of stress is on the prefix, e. g. ^anti-capitalist, non-Party,
^ex-minister, ■ W ice-president, ^ultra-fashionable,

4. In prefixal verbs which are distinguished from similarly
spelt nouns and adjectives, the place of stress is on the second
syllable, nouns and adjectives have their stress on the initial syl-
}al>le, e.g.

verb noun adjective

to compound — 'compound

to in'crease I increase —

¹ Gimson A. C. Op. cit.

5. Suffixes: -esce, -esque, -ate, -ize, -fy, -ette, -ique, -ее, -eer,
-ade have the place of stress on the preceding syllable or en them­
selves, e.g. [picturesque, Cigairette, technique, reeree, рШпеег,
tnarVnade, fluaWfy, _tspecia4ize, dictate.

6. Suffixes: -ical, -ic, -ion, -ity, -ian, -dent, -ieticy, -eous,
-ual, -uous, -ety, -itous, -ive, -ative (-Hive), -itude, -ident, -inal,
-ital, -wards have the place of stress on the preceding syllable,
e.g. economic, grammatical, position, majority, ^special, etc.

7. In words of four or more syllables the place of stress is'on
the antepenultimate syllable (third from the end), e.g. Emergency _f
caHamity, historical.

In compound words the first element is stressed when:

1. compounds are written as one word, e. g. lappletree, ^bedroom?
^caretaker, 'watchdog, ^downcast;

2. nouns are compounded of a verb and an adverb, e. g. a 'pick­
up, a ^make-up;

3. nouns in the possessive case are followed by another noun»
e. g. a doWs house, Hady's maid.

In compound words the second element is stressed when:

1. food items have the first element which is of a material
used in manufacturing the whole, e. g. apple Hart',

2. names of roads, parks and squares are implied, e. g. CaUhe-
dral iRoad, Park Wace (but CaHhedral street);

3. parts of the house and other buildings are implied, e.g.
front idoor, kitchen ^window;

4. adjectives with past participles characterizing'personsi e.g..
thick-skinned, cold-blooded (but downcast);

5. compound nouns ending in -er or -ing are followed by an¹
adverb, e.g. passer iby, summing 'кр.

Two equal stresses are observed: (a) in composite verbs, e.g* to igive up, to come If«;

(b) in numerals from 13 to 19, e.g. six4een, ififHeen. The semantic factor is observed in compounds:

(a) when compound nouns denote a single idea, e. g. ^blacksmith
(кузнец), ^walking stick (палка, трость); drawing room (гости­
ная);

(b) when the first element of the compound is most important
e. g. birthday (день рождения), darning needle (штопальная игла;
Am. стрекоза);

(c) when the first element of the compound is contrasted with
some other word, e.g. flute player (флейтист), not ЫоШ player
(скрипач);

(d) when a compound is very common and frequently used it
may have a single stress, e.g. midsummer (середина¹-¹ лета); ^mid­
night (полночь).

The rhythmic tendency is very strong in modem English. Due to its influence there are such accentual variants as: capitalist /■toepitehst/, /katprtelist/, hospitable /Urespitebl/, /hesipitebl/, etc..

In sentences words with two equal stresses can be pronounced!

with one single stress Runder the influence of rhythm, e. g. Uhir-Heen, but: Her ^number is Ukirteen ^hundred.

Under the influence of rhythm a shifting of word-stress can be observed in words with secondary stress, e. g.: [qualification—ljust qualification—^qualification (emphatic variant).

The rhythmic stress affects the stress pattern of a great number of words in the English language. This results in the secondary accent, e. g. refugee, employ^ee, engineer, picturesque, occupation, recommendation, etc.

Under the influence of rhythm compounds of three elements may have a single stress on the second element; e.g. hot iwater bottle грелка, waste 'paper basket корзина для ненужных бумаг (hoi water bottle, waste paper basket may also occur.).

In everyday speech the following variants of stress patterns can also be observed:

J. stylistically conditioned accentual variants, e. g. territory /jteriib:n/ (full style)—/itentri/ (rapid colloquial style);

p Similar cases can be observed in Russian, e. g. п/А/игёл, which is pronounced in full style, and п/ъ/шёл, pronounced in rapid col­loquial style. Творог /твбрък/, /твлрбк/—both variants are correct. Free accentual variants should not be confused with orthoe-pically incorrect accentuation. According to the data given by Soviet and foreign phoneticians-the most common types of English stress pattern are: in two-syllable words — —, e.g. after —1, e.g. before in three-syllable words —----- , e.g. family —I—, e.g. importance

2. individual, free accentual variants, e.g. hospitable/ ihospitabl/,

itebl/

Questions

1. How is stress defined by different authors? 2. What is stress on the auditory, articulatory and acoustic level? 3. What types of word-stress do you know? 4. To what type of word-stress does the English accentual structure belong? 5. To what type of word-stress does the Russian accentual structure belong? 6. What is the difference between stressed vocalism in English and in Russian? 7. What is the differ­ence between fixed and free type of word-stress? 8. What is the shifting of word-stress? 9. How does stress perform constitutive, distinctive and recognitive functions? 10. How can the stress patterns be represent^ ed graphically? 11. What is the terminology suggested by different authors to distinguish betwen different degrees of word-stress? 12. How is stress represented in written form? 13. How does Gimson mark accentual elements? 14. What factors determine the place and differ­ent degree of word-stress? 16. What rules of word-stress do you know a) for prefixal words, b) for compound words? 16. How does theseman-

tic factor affect the place of word-stress? 17. How does the rhythmic tendency influence word-stress system in modern English? 18. What are the most common types of English stress patterns?

Exercises

*I. Read these compound words with two equal stresses and translate them.

unaided /lAn'eidid] repack /irkipaek/

tmalienable Ллп'еи^пэЫ/ prepaid /'prUpeid/

unaltered /'лп'э:1Ы/ misspell /imis'spel/

unarmed /Uniarad/ misuse /imis'ju:z/

unaspirated /lAn'sespireitid/ misrule /'mis'ru:l/

unclean /'лп'кШп/ misquote /'mis'kwaut/

anticyclonic /lantisai'kkmik/ misplace /'misipleis/

anti-national /isentilnaej9nl/ under-dressed /Undaidrest/

non-payment /'mm! pennant/ underoificer ^Andatofisa/

non-resident /'monirezidsnt/ underpopulated /'d'j
non-stop /inon'stup/ leitid/

ex-minister /leks¹ minis tg/ vice-adrairal /ivais'eedmiral/

reopen /'гк'эирэп/ vice-consul /'vais'konsal/

reorganize /'г1:'э:дэпак/ pre-history /iprh'histan/

ultra-modern /'Иа

*2. Read these compound adjectives with two equal stresses and translate them.

igood-ilooking, ^!old-!fashioned, 'bad-'tempered, labsent-iminded_f fbare-'headed, inome-imade

Note. When a compound adjective has a synonym to its first element, the stress is on the first element:

!oval-shaped=oyal Syellow ish-! ooking=yellowish Jsquare-sha ped=square Igreenish-Iooking=greenish

3. Read these composite verbs with two equal stresses,

'carry 'out выполнять igo 'on продолжать

'come a^!cross встречать 'point 'out указывать

iget 'up вставать 'put ion надевать

'see 'off провожать isit idown садиться

'set lup устанавливать Hake 'off снимать (одежду)
ifall 'out ссориться; выпадать ifall 'back отступать

imake 'up мириться iget 'back возвращаться

'blow 'out взрываться ibring 'forth производить

Ipick 'out выбирать 'fix lup устраивать

*4. Read these compound words with one single stress on the first, most im­portant part of the compound, and translate them.

apple-tree, bystander, daybreak, birthday, sheep dog, pillow­case, school-boy, suit-case, time-table, inkpot, hair-do, housewife, eve­rything, fire-place, broadcast, fountain-pen, anyone

Ш

*5. Read these compound nouns with one stress denoting a single idea and translate them.

butterfly, newcomer, butter-fingers, blacksmith, greatcoat, air­plane, bluebottle, butter-boat, butterdish, bookmark

*6. Read these pairs of words. Translate them into Russian, mind the seman­tic importance of word-stress (distinctive and recognitive function).

^blackboard—'black 'board 'overwork—'over 'work 'blackbird—'black 'bird 'yellow-cup—'yellow 'cup 'strongbox—'strong 'box 'tallboy—'tall 'boy

7. Read these pairs of words. Translate them into Russian, mind the impor­
tance of the form-distinctive accenteine.

'abstract—to ab'stract 'desert—to de'sert

'commune—to co'mmune 'forecast—to fore'cast

'compound—to com'pound 'import—to im'port

^conflict—to conflict 'outgo—to out'go

'contest—to con'test 'produce—to pro'duce

8. Translate these words. Mind the position of secondary stress on the first
syllable in the (a) column and on the second syllable in the (b) column.

(a) ,modification (b) ad,minis'tration

,oma mentation a,f filiation

,qualification assimilation

,represenitation consideration

,archaeo4ogical e,xami'nation

,tempera' mental pro,nunci 'ation

,aristo'cratic an,tago'nistic

,mathematician academician

9. Mark the accentual elements of these words according to Gimson's accen­
tual patterns. Read them.

2-syttable words: female, window, profile, over, under, cotton, table, husband

3-syltabte words: important, excessive, relation, appetite, photog­raph, telephone

4-sytlabte words: unimportant, insufficient, melancholy, caterpil­lar, criticism, capitalize

5'Syttable words: satisfactory, aristocracy, administrative, empi­ricism, consideration, circumlocution

6-sytlabte words: variability, meteorological, autobiographic, identification

7-and 8-syllable words: unreliability, industrialization, impenetra­bility, unilateralism, uninteligibility

10. Read the sentences below to prove the distinctive function of the stress. Translate them into Russian.

1. 'Contrast makes it seem better. 2. 'Export is forbidden.
Contrast Tom with his sister. Ex'port cotton goods.
It's because of 'contrast. These goods the cities ex'port.

It's because they con'trast,

3. This 'forecast was wrong. 4. A iprefix is added.

I like his iforecast. Pre'fix a paragraph to Chap-

ter I.
It's what they forecast. It's a 'prefix.

It's a paragraph they decided to pre'fix.

5. He is a 'suspect. 6. They gave way without " pro-

He is the man we susipect. test.

The 'suspect is here. They decided to pro'test.

We susipect this man. This iprotest was wrong.

Protest against it.

11. Put down the stress marks in the words below. Read them according to the model.

Model:qualification — ljust [qualification (emphatic variant)

centralization, modification, composition, nationalization, orga­nization, anticipation, intercession, overbalance, justification, hos­pitality, satisfactory, sentimentality, impossibility, idiomatic, ar­tificial, unaccountable, fundamental, distribution, representation, characteristic, ornamentation, interrogation, administration

2. Put down the stress marks in the words below. Tran late them into Rus sian and read according to the stress pattern.

ascertain, acquiesce, grotesque, cigarette, antique, saloon, emplo­yee, career, lemonade, atomic, phonetic, phonological, familiarity, proletarian, beneficial, efficient, aqueous, residual, impetuous, pro­priety, active, relative, gratitude, attitudinal, sagittal, upwards

ControlTasks

*1. Provide these words with necessary stress marks.

;ir-raid, birdcage, coalmine, teapot, washstand, mail-bag, dance-music, grandfather, handwriting, shopkeeper, ladybird, office-boy, waiting-room, dinner-jacket, tape recorder, labour exchange, ground floor, knee-deep, cross-question, flat-footed, shop-window, hot-water-bottle, waste-paper-basket, post-graduate, vice-chancellor, second­hand

*2. Transcribe the words and put down stress marks in these verbs and nouns. Translate them.

absent n—absent v combine n—combine v

compress n~ compress v concert n—concert v

consort n—consort v desert n—desert v

produce n—produce v outlay n—outlay v
infix n—infix v

3. Give examples to show the existence of word and form-distinctive accen-
tcmes in English and in Russian.

4. Give examples of the most common stress patterns in English,
188

Give examples to illustrate the rules of word-stress for a) prefixal words; b) compound words.

Give examples to prove the importance of a) the rhythmic tendency and b> the semantic factor for the system of English word-stress.

Use the words below in the examples of your own.

I import—im 'port ' transport—transport

'increase—inJcrease 'object—ob'ject

¹ protest—pro 'test I forecast—fore least

¹ record—re'eord icontrast—conl tr ast

Put down stress marks in the sentences below. Translate them into Russian-

9. Read the following compounds. Translate them into Russian. 'throw-back, Uook-out, fflashbacki Qie-idown, 'look-iround, lali iin, 'head…

VIII. STRONG ANDWEAK FORMS.UNSTRESSED VOCALISM

Given below are the lists of essential weak and contracted forms. The Use of Weak and Contracted Forms 1. If a word is stressed the strong form must be used.

MELODY

Speech melody or pitch of the voice is closely connected with sen­tence stress. Crystal states that "the only realizations of stress, which are linguistic, which are capable of creating an effect of relative pro­minence, of accent, are those which are effected with the complex

help of pitch, quantity and quality variations. The most important is pitch." ^L

Successive contours of intonation singled out of the speech flow may be defined differently: sense-groups (semantic approach), breath-groups (extra-linguistic approach), tone groups (phonological definition)^a intonation groups, tone (tonetic) units, pitch and stress patterns. Each tone unit has one peak of prominence in the form of a nuclear pitch movement and a slight pause after the nucleus that end the tone unit and is usually shorter than the term "pause" in pausation system.

The tone unit is one of the most important units of intonation theory. It contains one nucleus, which is often referred to as nuclear tone, or peak of prominence. The interval between the highesfand the lowest pitched syllable is called the range of a sense-group. The range usually depends on the pitch level: the higher the pitch, the wid­er the range. High, medium and low pitch of the voice is shown on the staves. The change of pitch within the last stressed syllable of the tone-group is called a nuclear tone. It may occur not only in the~nu-cleus but extend to the tail — terminal tone.

The inventory of tonal types given by different scholars is dif­ferent. Sweet distinguishes 8 tones: - level, ' high rising,, low ris­ing, ^лhigh falling, »low falling, ^v compound rising, ^л compound falling, - rising-falling-rising. Palmer has four basic tones: falling, high rising, falling-rising, low rising. He also mentions high-fall­ing and "low level" and describes coordinating tonal sequences ("" identical tone groups), and subordinating tonal sequences (■' " dissimilar tone groups). Kingdon distinguishes high and low, normal and emphatic tones and gives rising, falling, falling-rising (divided and undivided), rising-falling, rising-falling-rising and level tone (the latter is not nuclear). O'Connor and Arnold give low and high falls and rises, rise-fall, fall-rise, and a compound fall 4- rise (the latter is considered a conflation of two simple tunes). Halliday recognizes seven major types, ', ,, ^л, ^v, ⁴⁺ , ^л+/.

Vassilyev gives ten tone units. He states that tones can be moving and level. Moving tones can be: simple, complex and compound. They are: Low Fall; High Wide Fall; High Narrow Fall; Low Rise; High Narrow Rise; High Wide Rise; Rise-Fall; Fall-Rise; Rise-Fall-Rise. The most common compound tones are: High Fall + High Fall; High Fall 4- Low Rise. Level Tones can be pitched at High, Mid and Low level.

Methods of indicating intonation are different: wedge-like symbols, staves with dots and dashes, which correspond to unstressed and stressed syllables within the voice range, tonetic stress marks, numeri­cal system, etc. The system of staves is the most vivid, the system of

¹ Crystal D. Prosodic Systems and Intonation in English.— Cambridge,
1969,— P. 120.

² Crystal's terminology.

tonetic symbols is the most economical and vivid, that's why they are most popular in our textbooks.

'The tonetic units that constitute the total tone pattern (contour) are the following:

1. unstressed and half stressed syllables preceding the first stressed
syllable constitute the prehead of the intonation group;

2. stressed and unstressed syllables up to the last stressed syllable
constitute the head, body or scale of the intonation group;

3. the last stressed syllable, within which fall or rise in the intona­
tion group is accomplished, is called the nucleus; the syllable marked
with the nuclear tone may take a level stress;

4. the syllables (or one syllable), that follow the nucleus, consti­
tute the tail, e.g.

It's been a 'very igood , even ing for me.

Г

prehead

scale nucleus

tail

The most important part of the intonation group is the nucleus, which carries nuclear stress (nuclear tone).

According to the changes in the voice pitch preheads can be: rising, mid and low:

rising

• * •

mid

4 f #

low

Scales can be: descending, ascending and level.

According to the direction of pitch movement within and between syllables, descending and ascending scales can be: stepping, sliding and scandent;

 

descending stepping descending sliding descending scandent

 

_	*
	t	*
—		I - *

ascending stepping

ascending sliding

ascending scandent

nmminiS 1 ^the_f^^{ds ш the} descending scale is made specially

SB5 th/f ^1C4 ^arrrJ^s P^{]aced before} the dash-mark which indicates the stressed syllable on the staves, or before the word

made specially prominent in the text—f/ accidental rise, e.g. 'John

is |very _tbusy.

This type of scale is called

up broken descending scale.

The falling tones convey completion and finality, they are categor­ic in character. The rising tones are incomplete and non-categoric. Of all the level tones mid level tone is used most frequently. The level tones may express hesitation and uncertainty.

Attitudinal function of intonation can be observed in utterances consisting of one word and in utterances consisting of more than a single word. In the latter cases it is not only that the type of the nu­cleus is important but also the pitch of the utterance preceding the nu­cleus: prehead and head. The attitudinal function of different tonal types in statements, special and general questions, commands and in­terjections is accurately and thoroughly described in the "Intonation of Colloquial English" by J. D. O'Connor and G. F. Arnold and in our textbooks on phonetics.

SENTENCE STRESS, OR ACCENT

Sentence stress is a greater prominence of words, which are made more prominent in an intonation group. The special prominence of accented words is achieved through the greater force of utterance and changes in the direction of voice pitch, accompanied by changes in the quantity of the vowels under stress (in unstressed position vowels may undergo qualitative changes, see unstressed vocalism).

The difference between stress and accent is based on the fact that in the case of stress the dominant perceptual component is loudness, in the case of accent it is pitch. Degrees of stress in an utterance cor­relate with the pitch range system. Nuclear stress is the strongest — it carries the most important information. Non-nuclear stresses are subdivided into full and partial. Full stress occurs only in the head of an intonation group, partial stress occurs also in the prehead and tail. Partial stresses in the prehead are most frequently of a low va­riety, high partial stress can occur before a low head. Words given partial stress do not lose their prominence completely, they retain the whole quality of a vowel.

In tone-groups stress may undergo alternations under the influ­ence of rhythm, but there are some rules concerning words that are usually stressed or unstressed in an utterance.

Given below is the list of words that are usually stressed:

Nouns.¹ Adjectives. Numerals. Interjections. Demonstrative pro­nouns. Emphatic pronouns. Possessive pronouns (absolute form). In­terrogative pronouns. Indefinite pronouns: somebody, someone, some­thing, anybody, anyone, anything (used as subject). Indefinite neg­ative pronouns: no, none, no one, nobody, nothing. Indefinite pro-

Such as "thing", "person", "place" are unstressed.

nouns some, any (expressing quality). Indefinite pronouns: all, each, every, other, either, both. Indefinite quantitative pronouns: much, many, a little, a few. Notional verbs. Auxiliary verbs (negative con­tracted forms). Two-word prepositions. Two-word conjunctions. Par­ticles: only, also, too, even, just.

The words that are usually unstressed:

Personal pronouns. Reflexive pronouns. Reciprocal pronouns. Relative pronouns.¹ Possessive pronouns (conjoint form). Indefinite pronouns: somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone, anything (used as object). Indefinite pronouns some, any (when expressing quan­tity). Auxiliary verbs² (affirmative form). One-word prepositions and conjunctions. Articles. Particles: there, to. Modal verbs (contract­ed forms and general questions are exceptions).

The meaning of the verbs may, should, must changes depending on whether they "are stressed or unstressed, e. g. You '•may go — possi­bility. You may 'go — permission.

Stresses in an utterance provide the basis for identification and understanding of the content, they help to perform constitutive, dis­tinctive and identificatory function of intonation. These functions are performed jointly with the pitch component of intonation.

RHYTHM AND TEMPO

Rhythm is the regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syl­lables. It^is' so'typical of an English phrase that the incorrect rhythm betrays the non-English origin of the speaker even in cases of "cor­rect" pronunciation.

The'phenomenon of rhythm is closely connected with the phonetic nature of stress.

The units of the rhythmical structure of an utterance are stress groups от rhythmic groups. The perception of boundaries between rhythmic groups is associated with the stressed syllables or peaks of prominence.

Unstressed syllables have a tendency to cling to the preceding stressed syllables — enclitics, or to the following stressed syllables — proclitics. In English, as a rule, initial unstressed syllables cling to the following stressed syllables, non-initial unstressed syllables are enclitics:

**^~^ — usual rhythm pattern, .T>, — exceptions with the

initial unstressed syllables.

Each sense-group of the sentence is pronounced at approximately the same period of time, unstressed syllables are pronounced more

¹ The pronoun which in non-defining clauses is usually stressed, e.g. I
gave him a spade, which tool he hid in the barn.

² In general questions the affirmative forms may be stressed and unstres­
sed.

rapidly: the greater the number of unstressed syllables, the quicker they are pronounced. Proclitics are pronounced faster than enclitics. Rhythm is connected with sentence stress. Under the influence of rhythm words which are normally pronounced with two equally strong stresses may lose one of them, or may have their word stress realized differently, e. g.

'Picca'dilly—-'Piccadilly 'Circus—'close to Picca'dilly

I princess—a 'royal prin'cess

lindiarubber—a 'piece of india'rubber—an Hndiarubber _vball

PAUSATION AND TAMBER

Pauses made between two sentences are obligatory. They are longer than pauses between sense-groups and are marked by two paral­lel bars /Ц/. Pauses… Pauses are usually divided into filled and unfil ed, corresponding to voiced… Another subdivision of pauses is into breathing and hesitation.

STYLISTIC USE OF INTONATION

Sense-groups. In reading descriptive and scientific prose, tales or newspaper material they depend on the syntax or the contents. They are shorter… Tones. Mostly falling with a High Narrow Fall in non-final sense-groups of… Pitch. In reading descriptive and scientific prose and in newspaper material it is mid. It is rather wide in public…

J

1. "I ^vhope I am 'not ,late.^x 2. ~You are 'not .right. 3. "1 'work systematically. 4. ~ I have no ¹time for ,lunch today. 5. "I 'should have ,done it. 6. "I Van't answer this question. 7. You 'can sing ,perfectly.

(n) requests (pleadingly, reproachfully, reassuringly)

J

1. 'Cheer ,up. 2. 'Do for,give me. 3. 'Don't ,do it. 4. ⁴Come in. 5. 'Don't |do it a,lonel 6. 'Will you in,vite me? 7. 'Go ,on.

7. Read these sentences. Make the auxiliary and modal verbs that begin sen­
tences stressed to show greater interest.

1. iDoes it ,matter? Does it ,matter? 2. lls he going to ,come? Is he Igoing to ,come? 3. iDo you like ,oranges? Do you 'like , oranges? 4. I Can you have an [afternoon ,off? Can you have an lafterinoon ,off? 5. iCould they ,help it? Could they ,help it?

8. Read these sentences. Make the possessive pronouns that are used as predic­
atives stressed.

1. IThis (thing was .mine. 2. IThis I thing was Jhis. 3. 'This ithing was _vyours. 4. IThis 'thing was _sours. 5. IThis 'thing was ^theirs.

9. Read these sentences. Make the final prepositions strong.

1. iNothing to be afraid of. 2. Whom are you _t talking to? 3. iWhat do you ₄want it for? 4. It was iMary he was ^looking for. 5. It was 'Bess he was _vthere with. 6. iWhere did she _tcome from? 7. What is she ₄here for? 8. It's a ithing unheard of. 9. 'This Iboy should be _vsent for. 10. IThis 'letter was «much talked about.

10. Read these sentences. Don't stress the correlative conjunction "as , . . as"-

1. I'll Icome as 'soon as he ^pleases. 2. I'll iread as Hong as the fchild Jikes. 3. It's tnot as 'simple as _vthat. 4. (Jane was as

1 /-

/-/ — the high prehead

(pale as ä _vghost. 5. lUria was as 'slippery as an »eel.'6. iDid'you •say: "As I snug as a I bug in a jug?"

11. Read these sentences. Don't stress (or make weakly stressed) combinations: "or so", "or something", "each other", "one another". Don't stress the sub­stitute word "one".

1. He will 'come in an _vhour or so. 2. This ifruit will be Ired in a ₄month or so. 3. We'll ibuy a ,coat or something to project you from the ₄cold. 4. He 'said """Good _xmorning" or something, and (Went |onwith his ₄work. 5-. He' 'really 'wanted a 'couple of »books or so. 6. He was a ^bootmaker and a _vgood one. 7. We have 'never ^quarrelled with each other. 8. The Ipassengers 'seemed to Jike one another.

Я2. Read these rhymes. Observe the regular alternation of stressed and un­stressed syllables according to the given stress tone marks.

Uack and (Jillwent fup the ,hill. To I fetch a ipailof »water. •Jack fell ,down and I broke his ,crown, And 'Jill came 'tumbling _vafter.

'Twinkle, itwinkle, 'little ,star, 'How I 'wonder iwhat you ₄are. I Up albove the I world so ,high 'Like a'diamond Jin the _vsky.

* * *

In 'winter 'I get lup at _xnight And I dress by I yellow 'candle | light. In 'summer jquite the 'other _vway I _^bave to Jgo to J>bed by _%day.^г

Control Tasks

1. Transcribe and intone the sentences below. Pay attention to the differen-tiatory function of stress in the italicized words.

1. a) He spoke with no trace of accent, b) The way you accent these words tells me you were not born in England. 2. a) That's very ab-

S

what I call a silver'tip? thVtax'i-dr'iver"said contentedly, b') This is obviously a silver tip; no other metal would have been strong enough for the job. 5. a) You will need a permit in order to visit that place, b) The job has to be done very quickly; it does not permit of any delay.

¹ The mark Ijl indicates a stressed accented syllable In the scandent scale.

fi—182 209

6. a) We entered a very dark room, b) A darkroom is a room for photo­graphic processing. 7. a) Who is going to refund our losses? b) The re­fund did not amount to too much but it was extremely welcome. 8.

a) This is all the spending money you'll get from me for this month.

b) Spending money is easy, making it may prove more of a problem.

2. Read this text äs a radio commentator: I).Add extra loudness to your voice.
2) Watch the tempo of speech. 3) Articulate clearly and distinctly.

A World Without Wars, Without Weapons is the Ideal of Socialism

The international policy of the CPSU proceeds from the humane nature of socialist society, which is free from exploitation and oppres­sion and has no classes or social groups with an interest in unleashing war. It is inseparably linked with the basic, strategic tasks of the Party within -the country and expresses the common aspiration of the Soviet people to engage In constructive work and to live in peace with all the peoples.

The main goals and directions of the international policy of the CPSU:

— Provision of auspicious external conditions for refinement of
socialist society and for advance to communism in the USSR; removal
of the threat of world war and achievement of universal security and
disarmament;

— Constant development and expansion of cooperation between
the USSR and the fraternal socialist countries and all-round promotion
of consolidation and progress in the world socialist system;

— Development of relations of equality and friendship with
newly-free countries;

— Maintenance and development of relations between the USSR
and capitalist states on a basis of peaceful coexistence and business­
like mutually beneficial cooperation;

— Internationalist solidarity with Communist and revolutiona­
ry-democratic parties, with the international working class movement
and with the national liberation struggle of the peoples.

(From the draft new edition of the CPSU Programme)

3. Read this text as a dictation: observe correct rhythmic groups andsenten
stress.

Cutting off with a Shilling

marry

Sheridan, the famous English playwright, wanted his son Tom to rry a young woman of a large fortune. The youth was in love with

a penniless girl and refused pointblank to obey his father.

Out of patience with his son, Sheridan threatened him: "If you don't

immediately obey me, 1 shall cut you off with a shilling." "When you

really make up your mind' to cut me off with a shilling," said the youth, "you will have to borrow it first, sir,"

Sheridan burst out laughing and dropped the subject altogether.

Read these jokes. Define what intonation patterns should be used to convey humour.

An Englishman was driving along a country road in Ireland and met a man carrying a heavy bag. "Can I take you into town?" the Englishman asked. The Irishman said, "Thank you," and got into the car.

Read these texts as if you were readinglthem to a) children; b) students. Learn the poem by heart.

by Hilda I. Rostron What would we do, I'd like to know, Without that bird That loves to crow? Who wakes him up, I'd like to know, To tell him when It's time to crow.

X. RECEIVED AND GENERAL AMERICAN PRONUNCIATION

All the national varieties of the English language have very much 4n common but they differ from standard pronunciation. Standard pronunciation is… In the British Isles the regional types of the English language are: (1) the… In the United States of America the regional types of the American variant of the English language are: (1) the…

THE STfSTEM OF AMERICAN ENGLISH CONSONANTS

The main peculiarities in the pronunciation of GA consonants concern the following phonemes. /r/ This sound is one of the most characteristic of GA pronunciation. In its articulation the tip and blade of the tongue…

213-

RP. When preceded by /t, d, 9, J7, /r/ is pronounced with an audible friction.

GA /r/ is pronounced not only initially but also before a con­sonant and in the word final position, e. g. /fa^rm, be^rd. sistsV.

American scientists consider that /я, з^г/ and /э, з7 are tense and lax allophones of /r/ phoneme in /faöa^r/, /тз^гтэ^ту, /fia7-

N

There are two allophones of /1/ phoneme in GA: dark and light, but most of the GA speakers use the dark III in all positions: initially, .medially and finally.

Clear or light allophone of IM is commonly used in the South Atlan­tic regions of the USA.

The dark/1/is pronounced when the major portion of the tongue is raised to the velar part of the mouth cavity.

/t/

This phoneme is highly variable in AE.

(1) A voiced variety of /t/ is used in a) intervocalic position before
an unstressed vowel as in butter, Ы him in, Ы another; h) preceding a
syllabic /1/ as in beetle, subtle; c) between a nonsyllabic /1/ and an un­
stressed vowel as in malted, altogether, salted; d) between /n/ and an
unstressed vowel as in twenty, wanted, seventy, want to see; e) between
unaccented vowels as in at another place, if it is convenient.

/t/ is not voiced initially or terminally, or when it precedes syl­labic /n/ as in button.

(2) An unconsciously inserted /t/, or /d/ ("excrescent" /t, d/) is
recognized to be standard in such words as dense, mince, prince, which
become homonyms of dents, mints, prints.

(3) In careless or indistinct speech /t/ and /d/ may be lost a) as in
eighth, width, breadth, lists, posts; b) after /n/ and before an unstressed
vowel as in want to, twenty, find another, centre, wonderful, blinding,
storm, land of plenty.

(4) /1/ is dropped and a glottal plosive is inserted, when it is
immediately preceding a syllabic /n/ or /I/ as in kitten /ki^?n/,
mitten /mi^?n/, bottle /bü^?l/, settle /se^?l/.

The Glottal Stop /?/

f i It results from the compression^and sudden release of air at the glottis. It is produced when the compressed air is pushed through the separating vocal bands. This sound is known as laryngeal stop, it is voiceless and unaspirated. It is used by GA speakers before initially stressed vowels (sometimes between vowels) when the second vowel begins a stressed syllable, and as a transition sound from a final to an initial vowel as in triumphant, a^orta, Indiafoffice, ?/ did.¹

¹ Used frequently, it interrupts phrasing and distorts the rhythm of speech, г or. these reasons, it is usually counseled against.

/м/ and/hw/

Either of these symbols represent the pronunciation of words spelt with the initial wh as in where, when, etc, [hwl is an aspirated on-glide to the /w/ sound. /W is a voiceless, fricative, labiovelar or a voiceless /w/. Either of them is the norm, but /hw/ is the predominant lorau

N

The glottal, fricative or whispered GA /h/ is similar to the RP /h/. However the GA /h/ is frequently voiced in intervocalic position as in perhaps [f[]. /h/ is lost when used initially in unstressed or weak forms within a phrase, as in:

has — Where has he gone? have — I have gone to the store, had — He had twenty of them, his — I saw his car. he — Did you see how he ran?

/h/ has an independent phonetic value used initially before stressed syllables as in:

he — He gave John the bag.

whose — Whose book is this?

whole — The whole group came.

/h/ is omitted in a stressed word in: Come herel

Hi

_f'/w> h r/ are called, "glides" because the initial area of their formation is closely, associated with a Vowel: /w/ begins at or near [v, ul; /r/—near fc^r, a^r]; /j/^-at or near [i, i position, the glides appear only prevocally.

/j/ is the Hngua-palatal glide which in GA has^severalj modifi­cations:

(1) The [ju] variants are pronounced in words like tune, duty,
when u, iew eau are preceded by /p, b, f, v, m, k, h/ as in pure,
beauty, few, view, music, cupid, human.

(2) A slightly fronted [u] may be heard in all other instances
as in tune, new, duty, suit, enthuse.

(3) After fa J¹, tj d3/ or a consonant + /l/> [u], fronted [uj or
[iu] are used by GA speakers as in rumor, shoe, chew, June, flew,
blue.

(4) In huge, human type of words /h + j/ combination is pro­
nounced as the German "ich laut" [9]. The words huge, human,
humane, humor, humorist, humoristic and humorous can be pro­
nounced with the initial (hju) or [ju].

(6) Itj], [djl + [uj are assimilated in GA into '[tf] and [dg] as in tune [tfunl, due [dsub education dkjj

¹ The /hw/ is usual in Scotland, Ireland and in the North of England, is more usual in Southern^England.

215-

Ш

This sound is vocalized in final unstressed syllables ending in -ion, -ia.as in version !W$n/, Asia /eiga/. /J7 is not vocalized in depressipn, aspersion.

Nasals /m, n, g/

A common characteristic of GA is the so-called "American twang", which is the nasalizing of a vowel before a nasal conso­nant which results from the lowering of the soft palate,_while the vowel is being spoken as in candy [.kädi], manner [тагпэ^г], man

[msen], fine [famj.

In, m/ may be omitted followed by /f, v/ as in some vines

[sAvamz], come further [kÄf3^röa^r], one fine day [ш. fai dei].

Sometimes syllabic (g] is substituted for }$] or [эп1 as in taken

[teikg], sicken [sikn], chicken [tjikn].

GA speakers may pronounce [beikn] for bacon, [ai kg gau] for / can go, [baeg g bsegidg] for bag and baggage, [brsukn glaes] for broken, glass, [азаекд keit] for Jack and Kaie.

"English Pronouncing Dictionary" by D. Jones notes that in the words listed below Americans use /n/, while RP speakers use both /n/ and /n/:

conclude	conglomeration
enclose	encompass
encrust	engraft
engulf	enquire
incapacitate	incline
inclement	ingratitude
inglorious	synchron ic
	panchromatic

concave

congratulate

encourage

engrave

incapable

inchoate

incognito

nonconformist

Principal Peculiarities of^GA Consonants

1. Voiceless, fricative, labiovelar /м/.

2. The GA /r/ is more sonorous than the RPJ/r/. It is retroflex

3. /1/—predominantly dark.

4. /t/—short, voiced, intermediate between /d/ and /t/ and a
one tap /r/. /t/ may be omitted in twenty, plenty. It may change
into a glottal stop: that one, or turn into silence; twenty.

5. Glottal stop /?/.

6. /h/—voiced in intervocalic position; lost initially in un­
stressed or weak forms within a phrase.

7. /ju/ may change into a) fronted [a] in tune, duty, b)
/as/ in due, tune, c) "ich laut" in huge, human.

8. Я/—vocalized in version, Asia.

9. "Nasal twang" as in man.

216

The Tongue and Lip Positions of the American English Vowels

THE SYSTEM OF AMERICAN ENGLISH VOWELS

' The articulatory and distributional differences between GA and RP are the following.

Front Vowels

/■/

This phoneme does not differ greatly in GA and RP. It is diphthongized in the final position in GA- and RP, as in see /sii/, Diphthongization is less noticeable before voiceless stops as in beat /bit/, meat /rait/.

N

This phoneme is a little more open in GA than in RP. In GA it is ■■often obscured, when followed or preceded by Ix. h v/ orM as^in will, fill, river, bear,

/•/

It is lower than the RP /e/ and resembles /ге/. GÄ /б/ may"be diphthongized before /p_t t, k/, e. g. get /gs't/, bet /bi^at/.

- /*/

In j3A /e/ is long, tense and nasalized before /d, m, n/, e,g> 5^ДвеМ/, answer/iffi:ns3/. The GA W differs from the RP /as/ distnbulionally: (l)it is used in words in which the letter a is foltpwed by a consonant other than r, as in answer /i«ns>/, каЩШ1 aurU /ant/; (3) 'in GA /e/ is used instead of /a/ in Ще words like, cc/T£i /iken/, marry /imen/, parrot /iperat/.

^:' ^ ^{The Кгопцад1вШп} of American,.'Engt)*.,

Central Vowels

/A/

It is stressed, unrounded, mid-open, produced with the middle of the tongue slightly raised. The position of the tongue is close to low back /и, э/. When unstressed /л/ may be replaced by [э] or p], as in subscribe [sabiskraib], [stb.. .J-

Speakers of New York City and some in Eastern New England use [4i3ri] instead of /1плп/. In colloquial speech [waz], [av], Цй-лт] can be used instead of [wdz], [t>v], [from].

N

/3/ and its variant [з^г] are tense, stressed and usually long vowels. [з^г] variant is the more common of the two. It results from a retroflexion of .the tongue-tip toward the hard palate, a greater retraction of the tongue or a combination of both, e.g. bird /ba^rd/, fir №/.

[9^r] is the sound of suns tressed syllabic /r/ in such words as father, doer, better. The r-coloured, lax, central vowel is heard throughout the JJSA, except in the r-less areas, such as the South, Eastern New England, New York City. [э^г] and its variant [9] vary as do the /з/, /з^г/.

[з, з^г] are used to represent stressed er, ur, ear, or, as in fern, burn, learn, worst.

[э^г, э] * are used to represent unstressed er, or, oar, ax, ir, ur, lire» yr, re, as in better, actor, cupboard, wizard, tapir, pressure, hmrmur, satyr, sceptre.

N

The unstressed, central, lax vowel that can occur in any position of a word. It is the most commonly used vowel because of the exten­sive use'of uastressed syllables, /э/ is used in definite and indefinite articles, monosyllabic prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns and auxil­iary and modal verbs, as in a, an, the, but, or, for, from, of, her, them, shall, was, can.

N

High, central, unrounded. The lips are in the neutral position. The central part of the tongue is high, the bulk of the tongue retract­ed] from .the_cposition for [i], [1], It is known as the "barred V and used in .the words like sister, thing, fist, fish, chips. This sound is rarely heard in GA, but in colloquial speech it is found in all dialects of Amer­ican English. It is used in both syllables of the word children. It varies withVi/ in the words'me, 'see. The unstressed hi is common in words like parted, horses, in the words can and just in the phrases:

,*te,,я'], [эг, з] are considered to be allophones of the hi phoneme, see •Br<ms№itb*A'. J, The Pronunciation of American English.— Prentice Hall,' 1960 (^central vowels").

/ can do it, Just a moment /km/, /eiset/. Many American scientists are convinced that the three high vowels /i, i, u/ "are as phonemically distinct from each other as the three mid vowels /s, л, о/."

Emphasized w, Ate, trift, »fe, i/, ftfe are pronounced with pj. Most people do not hear this sound because it has*no special form which can be associated with it.

N

The GA /a/ is more front than the [RP /a/. It is central, or mixed and low, broad variation. In contrast to the RP N the GA /a/ has a different distribution. It is used a) in words like hop, rob, not, lock; dolt, solve, on; b) in words before velar /rj/, /g/ both /a/ and /o/ can be used as in log /lag/—/log/, frog /frag/—/frog/, etc.

Back Vowels

N

It is a back, low, lax vowel. It is used as a variant of N in hot, stop, and of /d/ in rfog^, cough. For those who distinguish between (bam, bum, fn>0, frod, hug, hok[ /«/ is а separate^pho­neme, different from /a/ or /o/ in ca/m, Ыт, law, fall.

М

The GA /o/ is intermediate in quality between theJRP /o;/ and /«/■ In the production of the GA /a/ the lips are considerably less rounded than in artjculating^/o:/. This sound is commonly spelled with an a or o. Other spellings are ail, aw, al, oa, ou, as in a», border, fault, fawn, halt, broad, brought*

/«/

It is a high, back, tense vowel. The lips are rounded and may> be slightly protruded, as in boot. It is diphthongal in character, especially when stressed and lengthened — [uu]. Slightly fronted [м] may be heard in tune, new, duty, suit. The forms with [ju]_t f» are also possible.

N

It is a slightly lower and fronted sound when compared with /u/. The lip rounding is less than for /u/. It is spelled oo, u, o, ou, as in book, full, wolf, could. The GA /u/ sounds like RP /«/• As a variant it can occur finally in the word into.

GA Diphthongs

Soviet phoneticians distinguish five diphthongs in GA: /ei, ai, oi, au, ou/.¹

* Shakhbagova D, A. Varieties of English Pronunciation,—M., 1982.-» P. 27.

/ei/

■ It differs from the RP /ei/ in diphthongization. It mostly occurs in word final position, or before voiced consonants, as in holiday /'hahdei/, game /geim/, grade /greid/. A monophthongal variant of /ei/ may occur before voiceless consonants as in gate /get/, date /det/. It may be reduced to /e/ in unstressed syllables, as in va­cation /veikei£n/, chaotic /keiatik/. In American books on phonetics and in dictionaries it is transcribed as /e/.

/ai/, /3i/

These diphthongs are practically identical in RP and GA.

In GA the nucleus of the diphthong is aback mid-open vowel, in RP it starts from the tongue position for the RP /a:/. It is, therefore, transcribed by some British phoneticians as /эй/. In GA the glide of the diphthong may be reduced to /o/ before voiceless Consonants and in unstressed syllables, as in boat /bot/, radio /'reidio/. It is transcribed as /of by American phoneticians.

/аи/

This diphthong may be realized as /au/ and /аи/, the first va­riant usually predominates. In RP the starting point is the posi­tion of the tongue for /a/.

/at/, /о:/, /ю/, /еэ/, /ээ/, /иэ/

In GA these monophthongs and centring diphthongs are pro­nounced respectively as: /ar/, /or/, jit/, /er/,/^ur/.

Principal Peculiarities of GA Vowels

1. No opposition between historically long and historically short.

2. /i/ may be obscured as in fill, river.

3. /e/—lower than the RP /e/.

4. /ge/—long, mostly nasalized, may turn into /e/ as in marry,
carry, /a/ may be used instead of /a/ as in ask, past, dance.

5. /3/—retroflex in medial and terminal position as in bird,
better.

6. M—"barred" /i/ in sister, parted, horses, in emphasized in,
his, with.

7. /a/ instead of /d/ as in dolt, hop, rob.

8. /o/ instead of /э:/ as in law, quality.

9. In GA the distinction between monophthongs and diphthongs
is not very consistent.

10. Within the orthoepic system the pronunciation of words in
GA is close to the reading rules and is therefore different from that of
RP.

Ш

THE ACCENTUAL STRUCTURE OP WORDSJN AMERICAN ENGLISH

The major differences in the accentual structure between RP and GA are mainly with the use of the tertiary stress (the primary stress isjonic, the secondary stress is pre-tonic, the tertiary stress is post-tonic, unstressed syllables are weak).

The tertiary, or post-tonic stress in GA falls on the suffixes -ary, -ery, -ory_f -mony, -arily, -ative, -on, e. g.

GA RP

'dictionary /en/ 'dictionary /эп/

I territory /эп/ 'territory /эп/

I monastery /en/ 'monastery /эп/

¹ testijmony /mouni/ testimony /тэт/

'ordinarily /enh/ 'ordinarily /arili/

ad'minisjtrative /eitiv/ administrative

The suffix -ile is an exception, e. g. GA agik /il/, /э1/, Л/, RP agile /ail/.

Other differences between British and American word-stress com­prise a) two, b) three, c) four, d) five syllable words:

GA HP

a) Mbrate viibrate

b) confiscate (confiscate

c) primarily 'primarily

d) 'custoimarily 'customarily

In five syllable words the American secondary stress may fall earli­er than the British:

GA RP

igesticu'lation gesticulation

There are exceptions:

GA RP

a'ristojcratic (aristocratic

The major differences in the accentual types of compound words in GA and RP are the following:

i) In RP compounds with two primary stresses are more common than in GA:

GA RP

New I York iNew 'York¹

¹ Exceptions are RP: rainproof, Westminster, midsummer.

2) Tertiary stress differences comprise compound place names end­ing in -borough, -burgh, -bury, -ehester, -gate, -ham, -moor, -shire₄ -stead, -heath, -land, -mouth, -wood, -worth, e.g.

GA RP

iBirraing|ham 'Birmingham

Tertiary stress^differences also comprise words with the second component -berry,"**-body, -land, -penny, e.g.

GA RP

lanyibody 'anybody 'Sunday 'Sunday

INTONATION IN AMERICAN ENGLISH

American English intonation differs from British English intona­tion mainly in tmemphatJc, or emotionally neutral speech. Pretenni-nal pitch contour in RP is gradually descending stepping, in GA it is mid-level or mid-wavy-level. The unstressed syllables in GA fall' to a lower pitch, inRP unstressed syllables gradually descend. Ameri­can English intonation produces an impression of level or monotonous melody. The GA and RP differences in the direction of the voice pitch may lead to functional or attitudinal differences. For example, "low head" in RP conveys detached, reserved, dispassionate, unsympathet­ic, unemotional, sometimes cold or dull attitude oti the part of the speaker. In GA sentences like: Go out, Sit down, etc. pronounced with a low head and lowfall would sound quite normal. - The GA general questions take a falling tone, in RP they are pronounced with the rising tone. The rising tone'in'GA general ques­tions is used to show politeness, e. g.

usual form Ars you | Veady? polite form

The monotony of GA intonation is explained by the following fac­tors: 1) pitch characteristics, 2) narrow range of the utterance, 3) slow tempo, 4) more complicated than RP rhythmical structure of intona­tion (RP unstressed vowels are characterized by qualitative reduction,, in GA sounds in unstressed syllables are lengthened).

The differences between GA and RP sound, accentual structure-■and intonation do not affect the main language structures, therefore-GA is only a variety of the English language and cannot be considered. "American language" as some of the American linguists claim,

Given below are the diagrams in which vowel phonemes in Cana­dian English, General American and RP are summarized.¹

The norms of GA and RP pronunciation are^highly variable. The-Variability of standard pronunciation should be taken into consider­ation when teaching spoken language.

¹ For details see: Shakhbagova D. A. Op. eit. 222

Table 10

Comparative Chart of Vowel Phonemes in Canadian English, General American and RP

1 I»j. lea], [09], Eu»] correspond to the QA дпи СЕ (»), [srj. [srj, There are three main types distinguished within RP pronuncia­tion; 1)… The main differences between standard and advanced RP are the following:

Ш

Active organ of speech and the place of articulation; labial, bHabial vs. Singual forelingual apical alveolar; pen—ten, been—dean; labial bilabial vs. lingual backlingual: pole—coal, bait—gait; labial, labio-dental vs. labial bi­labial: fee—we, felt—well; labial, labio-dental vs. pharyngal:/ee—he; lingual, »forelingual apical vs. lingual forelingual cacuminal: sob—rob, seal—real, .■sole—role, sip—rip, sight—right.

Manner of noise production: occlusive vs. constrictive: pity—city, pay— say, pall—sail, pole—sole, peel—seal.

Voice or noise prevalence: occlusive noise (plosives) vs. occlusive sonorants i(nasal): pine—mine, debt—net, kick—Nick; constructive noise (fricatives) vs. •constrictive sonorants: fell—well, those—rose, soul—role, sip—rip, sight—right.

The number of noise producing foci: unicentral vs. bicentral: fell—well, fee—we.

The shape of the narrowing; constrictive with a flat narrowing vs. constric-iive with a round narrowing: fail—sail, fee—see, foot—soot, fat—sat, fell—sell-

3. fa) The force of articulation rather than the presence and absence of
■voice: /p— b, t — d, к — g/,

(b) Manner or noise production: occlusive /p/ vs. constrictive HI, It — s/,
/d — z/.

Active organ of speech: bilabial /p/ vs. backlingual /k/, backlingual /k/ vs. forelingual apical /t/.

(c) Manner of noise production: occlusive /t/ vs. occlusive-constrictive /t|Y
or /d/ vs. /ds/; constrictive /J7 vs. occlusive-constrictive /tf/.

(d) Place of articulation and the nurober of foci: interdental /6/ vs. apical
Я/, alveolar /z/ vs. palato-alveolar /3/, alveolar /5/ vs. palato-alveolar /J/.

Manner of noise production: plosive /t/ vs. constrictive /3/.

(e) Position of the soft palate: oral noise /b/ vs. nasal sonorant /m/, or /d/
vs. /n/, or /g/ vs. /n/.

4. The sub-minimal pairs: marry — measure, genre — jar, teasure —
ledger. All the other pairs are minimal.

Control Tasks p. 63

1. (a) man — nap, coming — cunning, seem — seen; (b) wield — yield,
wail — Yale; (c) pat — cat, supper — succour, leap — leak

2. (a) less — yes, drew — due, clue — cue, rung — young; (b) tame —
«ame, rudder — rugger, sinner — singer, bitter — bicker, bad — bag» bat —
hack, day«,- gay

3. (a) pine — fine, bee — thee, came — lame; (b) fare — chair, work —
jerk; (c) boat — moat, seek — seen, kick — king, deed — need, vain — lane,
sick—sing; <d) fare — chair, thine —wine, vain — lane; (e) thine — wine,
lame -~ same

5. /I, r, j/ after /p/ are devoiced; after /t/ the position of the tongue for hi
in try is not so cacuminal and hi is affricated; /i/ after It/ in tube is devoiced;
/w/ after It/ in twelve is devoiced; /1, r, I, w/ after /k/ are devoiced in clean, cream,
cue, quite.

Exercises pi 67

1. (а) /в—ж/. Both are back vowels, but /13/ is an open vowel of broad variation and /a:/ is a mid vowel of broad variation.

(b) /e—se/. Both vowels are front, but /e/ is a mid-open vowel of narrow
variation and /se/ is a low (or open) vowel of broad variation.

(c) /9: — d:/, /3:/ belongs to the group of central mid-open vowels of narrow
variation, /0:/ belongs to the group of back, fully back mid-open vowels of
broad variation.

(d) /ш— u/, Both vowels belong to the group of back high vowels, but /ш/
belongs to the subgroup of narrow variation and is fully bade, whereas /u/belongs
to the subgroup of broad variation and is a back-advanced voweL

(_e) /se—ei/, /ее/¹ is a frönt open vowel o! broad variation. The nucleus of the diphthong /ei/ is /e/ which is a front mid-open vowel of narrow variation.

m /я—эи/. /о:/ is a raid fully back vowel of broad variation. The nucleus of the diphthong /эй/ is a central mid-open vowel.

3. (а) /и—ai/, /эй—аи/; (b) /в—еэ/

4. The phonemes /fc,ei, ac.a:/ in the first row of each column are the longest,
they are shorter in the second, and the shortest is the third row.

5. Stability of articulation.

Control Tasks p. 68

1. (a) /t—e—a/ bead—bed—bad, deed —dead—dad; (b) /аг —э:—a/
cab—curb—cub, bad —bird—bud, tan—turn—ton, hat—hurt—hut

2. cart—card Boz—bars don—down
wart—what caught—cot cord—cod

3. {a) known — noun, phoned — found, hay — high, bay — buy, no —
now, hoe — how, tape — type

(b) hear — hair, beer — bear, ear — air, fear — fair, rear — rare, tear — tear

Exercises p. 74

5. (a) kJ:p, ipi-siz, Itl-ffaz, Ipfcpl, Iparpas, Iksitn, ta:nd, lka:li, k<t, kxts,.
pats, pKz, teik, taim, taiz, tiaz, keuld, Iteutl, ksa, Ipranrj;

(b) til, kist, tin, Ipiti, Ipeni, tel, Items, Ipendsltan, Iksempes, Iksembnan,
Iteksi, put, tuk.'kuk, IkArants, 1кл1э, pAmpt, nlpAblik, IkAvad, tAnz, Ipnsrbl,
k-ost, Ikulidj, tos

(c) spent, stei, staun, IstAdi, stik, Istatid, (splendid, ifcslprerrans, iks'tensivh,
Ibaskit, Iklismrj, ikslplem, pleis, р!азп, Iklasiz, plem, krfck, krept, кгир, Iplaitfwm,
a3kt, kept, lukt

6. Iptpl, pet, Ipa:msn3nt', Ittiq; kamp, Ikitjan; Ibiljsdz; Iditarsnt, aildia; get,
algein, ga:lz >

ipsigativ, lepildemik; lkEeps]u:Iz; bed; ibeta; Idifrant

lpi:siz, pens, Ipeitferz; Itventi, Isikslttn, Itainirj; Ikeafli; beidz, big, (Anbilltvablr Idifrsnt, daunt; Iginrz, Igivirj, gauz

Ipiisiz, nlpead, Ipaipss; tiez, teik, te:nd; btn, big, bed, bsek, Ьэи8; aildia, dilsaidid, Ididnt, dei; get, gest, geilz, Igsuirj

Iptktjg, (ptanad, ikslpekt, pee; Kifttfcn, misted, Icttsst*, ktp, Ibaskit, vslkeijent
Iksempes; Ы, Wsaid, imjbserasinj IstAdi, depös, deiz, Idsedr; Igigl,, gets, дз:1г„
дэи ,

pirjk, ikslpranans, Ipe^i, peitj tin, Iwnntid, teik, ternd; Idrinkirj, keim,. Iksandid, lfce:li; btri, Ibiikan, bit, basd, Iba'.tn; kanldi^gn, Inwdid, aildra; giv, get, ga:Iz

islpejeli, Ipsetan; stil, pölteiteuz, Itjielip; kbp, glkeisenl, kaen, lukfupai; bt,. IJugabM, Ibakbaun; dt; dra, imAdi, da-.t; givz, Uuggast, Iregiulö

ЫрЫщ, peid, Ipjurplz, Ip3:fikt; t!:tj stik,- ltju;zdi, tiaz; ki:p, llukirj, Iksrid3, keuld; bt, albeid, bask, baut; mldfcd, Idim, ldju;h, deit; Igivn, gest, algen, .algaU'

Iptenin, pit, nlpeid, Ipaesmd33; stif, Isiti, greulteak, ta:nz; ktp, Ibreikin, kserid3, ksuld; Ibbin, best, bsek; 1Ьз:1эи; di:l, Iditiz, die, ded; tgetirj, geiv, gaui

7. Ihffipi, Iliikap,' IkAbad, |nju(:)lmaunJ8, 1ащ, 1р1лтэ, bum, Itpmas,
Ihsn, Swtsl, Ibukei, lh?arjkatfif, iwmza, Ikemist, laarjks, Ibsnkwit, iklsept, I
gaust, no:, sain, 1лп, Idaisfrsem, sai, plaü, eit

Exercises p. 77

6. jan—jAn. пряжа—молодой
'бт—6in тонкий—вещь
Igivlra—Igivirj уступить—riaжертвование
ldraiv'mw.ldraivirj Ъ

1клщ1т— 1клтщ приходить—приход

sah—ял о солнце—пропетый

klfcn — klm чистый—прилипать

inutlBirj — 1плШд не вещь—ничто

(дэЫгп— Igauirj входить — отъезд

эип— 1эшд собственный—долг

sein — IseiiQ нормальный—пословица

< brerk/in — I breikrg врываться—торможение

Uuklm—llukirj быстрый взгляд—смотрящий

6. brig, 1ллг, 'iggland, IJAgga, Iem8in els, lnA6irj av 9a' Ikamd, Iwihrjli,
tteikirj it, Imiagld, Isttpig, 6io, UiArjgn, Ifijirj, Imocmrj, Idramrjl вп, Пигщэ, IJ^AOg^s
Jt !юп, sprig, Isfcirj э Ifrend Inf, Iklaspirj га 1Ьэи9 Ihsendz

7. Iraitirj, frtdirj, Igamrj, gtm, wen, sAg, Налддп, sAk, Btrj, Öifc,ihaerja,
, rsQk, kaum, 1э;Ьт, liogiij, Imiggld

Exercises p. 84

4. thin — sin тонкий — грех thick — sick толстый —> больной thought — sought думал — искал Forth — force вперед — сила mouth — mouse рот — мышь thumb — some большой палец — какой-нибудь worth — worse ценность — худший thick — tick толстый — тикать thought — taught думал — учил three — tree три — дерево seethe — seize кипеть — хватать lathe — laze токарный станок — безделье then — den тогда — логово though — dough хотя — тесто seethe — seed — смятение — семя heath — heat пустошь — жара both — boat оба — лодка forth— fought вперед — боролся clothe — close одевать — закрывать breathe — breeze дышать — бриз there — dare там — визов other — udder другой — вымя worthy — wordy достойный — многословный months месяцы

the eighth zone восьмая зона withstand противостоять clothes одежда sixth шестой is thin тонкий it's this это who's that кто это

6. faund^ieauzand, fa:st—63:st, fat—9si, Irk—Or*, fmz—6inz, def—depö

II. o:l—hal весь— зал 1Э—hia ухо—слышать aut~-haus внешний —дом at—hat искусство—сердце at—hut следовало бы —горячий is—hiz есть—его aust—haus выгонять—-дом it—hit это—удар il—hil больной —холм sez—1иев как—имеет

sed -— hged добавить—имел and —hsend и—рука am—ham рука—вред adz—hasndz добавляет—руки еэ—иеэ воздух-—волосы

14. sheep, sheet, sheen, ship, should, shook, shed, shell, shake, shave, shade, shame, shape, shy, shine; election, condition, delegation, competition, organiza­tion, station, pleasure, leasure, decision, vision, occasion, measure

16. П, Jtp, jAt, fij, brjij, lam;, Jfi/ra, Ispejal. Isteijsn, Ijusual
(р1езэ, Jup, 'Juga, Jud, Паз/, IbntiJ, linglij, laenkjas, Isenkjash, islpejali,
1к lkl

16, pas, isertnh, Isimk, sai3, liest?, ail, lhauziz, IhAzband, di!z9:t,

Ifiziks, Issfata, ilnAf, draft, lef I tenant, mevju(:}, Imseoju:, lgac]zws:9i, ig

Ivuik], IJepad, I Jugs, aljira, Ivsijan, Inaujan, Isaujal, Ik on Jans, IJivaln, tfeiz,
^ 1р1езэ, dl 1

Exercises p. 90

2. right, ride, ripe, cry, crisis, price, gray, bread, read, reap, reason, reach,
ridge, risk, friend, France, ring, rod, ran, rang, rot, wrong, great, try, rule,
roof, room, red, rest, ready, press, present, rash, rag, treason, written, row,
road, present

3. reits, red, ram, reust, raund, rsuz, lreko:d, iregj-ula, Ireilwei, 1глшп, Inalr,
Imsari, Inuend, frendz, Ikrasau, draiy, Ipraisiz,. tr», draund, Idresig, IwAri, Ifwid,
fhAndnd, Iterapritfa, Ikssnd, Ipiarrad, Iburaud, IkArents, tdifrent, Iflva, IkAmfst,
lhi;9a, W3:ld, almenka, istgslret, Imtidn, Inrats, 1тд(?э, wa:, Iwran, Istneri, 1кз:Ь„
IkAlad, Ineva, fa, Iststn, Ifiga, W3:k, da:z, pat, h:, ka

5. /ля, ju:fl, ja:, je:, jet, Ijestadi, ljust tu, njnz, Ihjuansn, mju(:)lziam, sju:f_t
fjtt, rilvjus, ju;zd, Ikaepsjuiiz • ■ -

9. The English /r/ is a cacuminal sounds the Russian /p/ is a trilled one.
/U is pronounced with the middle of .the tongue raised not so high as for

the Russian /й/, which results in the more "noisy" character of the /ft/ articu­lation.

/1/ is "light", it is pronounced with the front secondary focus. The Russian /л/ is pronounced with the back secondary focus,

/i/ is "dark" because it is pronounced with the back secondary focus. The Russian /л'/ is veiy "soft" which is the result of the front secondary focus in its articulation.

/w/ is biiabial and bicentral, it is pronounced with the back secondary focus. The Russian /в/ is labio-dental and unicentral.

10. For instance: ел—ель, пол—Поль, кол—коль.

11. /W—v/, /e—ae/, /fc—i/, /re—e/ are separate phonemes.

12. Jes, alpmjen, Unjan, jttlnait, mjut, Injtute, Ijuarap, Isju(;)id5, wud, to:k,
fauk, bctm, llinkan, witf, wahs, Ikwaia, hu:z, talwo:dz, sad

Exercises p. 93

²» ЛГ» dg/ are pronounced as* indivisible clusters of two sounds and represent single phonemes ДГ/ and /dj5/. The combinations /tr, dr, ts, tz, te, dflf/ consist °3/ ^{end6nt phonemes each:} /V+АЛ /d/+// /t// /t/+// /i/+/6A

3. chin, check, chess, chain, China, child, rich, much, chop, watch, chalk,
coach, Jim, jinn, Jimmy, age, page, change, Jenny, Jack, Jane, George, Germany,
June

4. tfj:p, tJ4:k, pf, t/m, Itjfflnl, IdsentI, ld₃ent!i, dgstmz, Istreindge,
ritf, witf, sAtf, mAtf, lAntf, WDtf, eidg, p«d3, ladj, lkDlid3, Ibtids,

Imaentfista, itnaänjulfsektj'araz, mldpimant, 9!remd3mant, mlgeidjmant, diltstft, Itempritfa, Inselfaral

6. tfaild, Ineitfa, Ikwestfen, Irait/as, Imtstfif, d50i, dsem, djips, п, lbAd3it, апиМз, Igrsendäa, Isauld33, Id

Control Task p. 105

(a) sit-down, read^,text 1, writedown, next^,time, glad^to see you,
what^can I do, like^to have it, what^.country, good^,time, tea and^cake,

don't_Jike, I'd.__ like, mashed^potatoes, mustard_p lease, got^to eat, that^pub,

■work_now, difficult^to deal, silk^dress, but_good, hit^nose;

(b) repeat^the noun, in^the noun, at_wthe blackboard, clean_the board,
online seventh, rounds,the city, and^the guest, on^this, on^,the boy's plate,
just^thirsty, tell^the girl;

(c) will^you read louder, will^you please, will^you tell^rae, tell^,the girl

Exercises p. 115 I.

, (a) si:, wi;, trt, Ы:, mi, hi, ft;

(b) sl;m, rfcd, klfcn, sfcn, dtl, lpi:pl, IbziIi;

|(c) tjfcp, swi:p, tftf, trtt, lfcst, krtk, wik

2. $Ъ, lv, IkDnkrfct, ftt, mit, nts, nlsfcv, faltfcg, IfcsBiit, kfc, kfc

3. m, il, big, wirjgz, pit, stik, klifs, зрпц, Bio, sik, nst, Isih, Ibtldtg, ig
kig, lbu|[E, Igimz, Ikvli, Ibizi, Imimts, tgauin, ldij"[z, btlgmz, Iknhds, Iwimin,

kalmit, lrna:si, ibritsn, Iwtndau, Imtsiz, Isimptamz, Jhtrlidi, Imtnstid, iklsaitid, '(в), Iheziteit, Ipnvilid3, Ikntisizm, ilnitnt, Imedsin

4. did, lid, IglEdli, IfrMi, lirjks, 1клп^, Ivilidj, IwdJiz, lrLK3is, Ibuksiz,
, Ikrpiz, llaudid, Ifatmtin, Ibiskit, Ifraidr, sl:y, lletis, Iftjnd, lfo;fit, 1квн

5. bed, sed, help, tel, ]et, hed, Items, Iwe3a, Imemba, lleta, drest, (sets,
piij, Ismwei, lenvid, 1р1езэ, Ifrendh, Idresirj, Idessht, Iseprit, Iheziteit, raailself,

nlmemba, inldevs, hau I tel, misted, fat get, illevn

6. rsd, get, ten_t Isevn, hed, ded, et, 9э temz, Ibercal

7. glsed, baad, plsen, kasn, swaem, bl©ok, drajgk, sakt, sset, Ifaensi, Iglsadli,
IJsetau, Iffidid, Isepkjas, Ibsedli, itraeJik, Шагрэп, Idsadi, Isffidms, bilgsen, iglzaekth,
ilmsedjm, vslkaebjularr, IpraugrEem, Isaenwid3tz, imBenjulfselctfaz, Ibsslkara, Isseknfais

8. Iksen, laempl, hav, Isaeman, plsed, Jsemlpem, laebssluitli, laebstrakt, I

9. ck, ba:, fa;, ka, a:m, ask, ka:d, past, fam, hctf, po:t, lads, frctns, gras,
dak, gad, peck, stctt, sma;t, Ia:st, ha:d, niisk, Idccnsin, Ibctskio, IIcuFei], 1гсеоэ,
lhadlj, Ihaiba, Ictnsa, leftist, Ifaä9, Ibaskit, lldasiz, la:t[klz, la:k|ein{d)3(3)I,
dilpatja, mllctdj, stllaist

10. ma-st, lansa, la:st, ta, pit, lcuf, Ibakh, lhafad, hat

11. un, nod, wuz, rod, wiont, двп, d3Db, tot, Ion, sun, 1ЬвЭэ, Ibunit,
fdukta, (müdl, Ihiostal, ionist, Inudid, Ibudi, lufa, Ihnland, Iruki, Isphd, Ikaemit,
lükjupai, Ikotid3[z, Iprüsparas, d3[lumitn, Ifnlsuitt, Ihulidi, iWDznt, lsi:n vi

12, hüt, Ision, Ifwm, Ikwohbi loümaritek, Iso:sid3, 'по1к1з, j'pt

13. тз:, dro:, o:l, кэ:1, bo:, ÖDit, ho:s, to:k, so:t, bo:t, d3s:d3, Jo:, b:mz,
d lwo:ta, Ivraikin, 1тэ:ти, bilfo:, 1э:1зэи, lekspo:ts, rmlpoitans, bau»,

, b:kistra, lo:[talgeSa, af tko:s, rfo:t[lfo:

14. port, fo;t, flo:, do:, kD:s_t ko:t, fo:, рэ:, гэ:, wo:, bro:d, bo:t_f гз:0, :1, jo:n, pa:, 9э:

15. gud, rum, wud, kuk, fut, tuk, put, sut, Juk, lukt, Ibujrz, imanjulfäektjaz,
Iwudn, Ikudnt, Iwudnt, Iwudland, Irestful, Iwuman, I put laut, I put Itm, gud I bar}
Ijiffitjroli, tnkalpitjuleit, Iksafli

16. put, puj¹, pul, Iwustid, wulf, luk, stud, tuk, kud, j"ud, Ikurra

17. flu, Ztt, tit, hu:, tlS, JUS, jtS, fju:, tru, /u:d, SlMl, skis], jufl, mU:V, ГЦ:Г,

h]u:d3, nju:, Ijusuah, Isbsslicth, Inju(:)lmaunj3, Immvirj, Isevinju:, тртэ Ibjurfiful, rilvju:, irumd, Isjusaid, Ivffilju:, Iregjitla, Ipju^lz, Ihjttmsn, Iktltjj

18. blu:, md, ml, d3«:n, kitl, turn, gru:p, wund, bru:z, bru:, malnurva

19. tjun, Ihjunra, jits, kju:, Itjuzdi, sjust, Injista, fju-., Ibjir-tt, hjuz

20. WAn, глп, kn, jAn, bAs, fflAtJ", tAn, JAO, клт, 1лЭэ, 1злшэ, _г
1шл9э, э1плЭэ, IkArgnts, tjAkl, IwAn, lhAndrad, 1пл8ц), 1галш, IfAm, Ikvli,
IkAntn, IkAtnpas, mAst, d3Ast, ItrAbl, IwAndaful, IwAndslaend, mlstrAkta, [intra-
IdkJ Ii

21. mAst, An!d3Ast, d3Ads, ШлтЬлд, dAz, frAnt, э1тл5/1тлш, flAd, ikApJ,

TAf, Uf

22. wa:, hsid, wa:d, lws:kaz, ISarti, sta:, ta:nd, lte:nnj, lbs:tn, hs:, J3:z, iba:bu,
ga:lz, ba:dz, wstk, Itaiki, lka:tn, fa:st, ws^d, wa:s, 1|э:1эк, Isa'.tnh, W3:6, da:t,
lpa:fikt

23. sts:, iffla:tl, lka:nl, Ьз:д, Iwarks, lta:na, ns;s, !a:

24. glgen, bUtjj]» slbaut, alkros, elbei, glpDn, falget, sslpraiz, [sigalret, ipikaldili, kgnlfes, pslhseps, salpauz, kanldijan, pglsent, hslself, ts ipli:z, ta 'step, Ээ Isüg, ta Idu;, te IfiJ, 0э lga:lz, 1рв:щэпэп1, Iprnbebli, Ifamsli, iwAndalsend Iwudlsnd, idekareit, ighmarm, Imsenijists, Idesalit, Irekagnaiz, Itrsevls, Ibselksni

Exercises p. 134

1. (a) When preceded by /w, I, 0, s, d, tf, r, j, h, m, n/ the /i:/ phoneme is pronounced: as labialized in /wi:/; with the labiodental, position. for /f/ in /Ifi:v9/; with the interdental position of the tip of the tongue in /6i:m/; with the apical constriction (round narrowing) in /si:/; with the apical occlusion for /d/ in /di:l/; with the cacuminal position of the tip of the tongue for /r/ in Ihy.pzl; with the palatal position of the bulk of the tongue for /j/ in /ji:Id/; with the glottal (pharyngal) narrowing for /h/ in /hi:/; as nasalized after /m, n/ in /mi:lz, mi:, ni:dnt/.

(b) When followed by / b, v, Э, t, 1, J¹, tf, к, д, m, n/ the /i:/ phoneme is pronounced:¹ with the bilabial release in /gri:b/; with the labio-dental release in /li:v/; with the interdental release in /Ji:6, bri:S/; with the apical occlusion in the final stage in /i:t, fi:l/; nasali'ed before /m, n/, with the velar closure in /bi:k, Itg/; retracted.

tongue in /fiJV; with the interdental position of the tip of the tongue in /Girjks, 9irj/; with the apical position of the tip of the tongue in /dsd, sit, lift/; as retracted in /Igiva/; with the cacuminal position of The tip of the tongue in /ntJV; as retracted Jn /kil/; with the glottal (pharyngal) narrowing for /h/ in /hid/.

(b) the /r/ phoneme is pronounced: as nasalized in /him/;² with the labio­dental release in /if, hv/; with the interdental release in /mi6, wiS/; with th&

¹ That is the first stage and the beginning of the medial stage of the vowel are affected.

^a Thai is the final stage 'is affected.

apical release in /iz, bil/; as nasalized in /tin/; with the palato-alveolar position of the tip of the tongue in the final stage in /паз/; as retracted in /pik, big/.

Control Tasks p. 136

1. Vowel No. I /i:/, quantitative changes: it is the longest in: sea, we, tree,, he. It is shorter in: easily, meals, fever. It is the shortest in: cheaper, sleet, speaker, teach, keep, sheep.

The quality of the vowels depends on the articulatory characteristics of the consonants which precede or follow them. E. g. in sea I'v.l is modified under the influence of the forelingttal, apical, alveolar, voiceless, fortis, constrictive* /s/; in we — under the influence of the bilabial, constrictive sonorant /w/; in meals — the nasal, bilabial, occlusive sonorant /ml; in cheaper — the lingua], forelingual, apical, palato-alveolar, voiceless fortis constrictive/t]/; in tree — the lingual, forelingual, cacuminal, post-alveolar, constrictive sonorant h/;. in fever ■— the labial, labio-dental, voiceless, fortis, constrictive IV; in sleet — the lingual, forelingual, apical, alveolar, constrictive "light" /J/; in speaker — the labial, bilabial, voiceless, fortis, occlusive /p/; in he — the pharyngali (glottal) voiceless fortis, constrictive /h/; in teach — the lingual, forelingual, apical, voiceless fortis, ocelusive III; m sheep — the lingual, forelingual, apica]„ palato-alveolar voiceless fortis constrictive Ц1. Etc.

Control Tasks p. 143 1.

/ei/

A. (1) a) pay, make, pain, weigh, way, waste, pale, Wales, paint; b) face;;
(2) b) lake, lay, day, late, lain, David, sane, taken; c) shape; d) rain, ray; (4^
game, case, gave.

B. (I) a) game, famous, able, shape; b) David, gave; (2) b) again, pain, case„
rain, late, -waste, pale, sane, Wales, face; c) age; (4) make, lake, ache, taken-

/au/

A. (1) a) boating, poker, motor, poet, motive; b) foe; (2) a) though; b) don't,,
total, social, son, nose, noticed; c) shoulder, jokes; d) road, bureau; (3) yolk;.
(4) go, gold, cosy; (5) hope, hotel, hold.

B. (1) a) hope; b) over; (2) a) both; b) boating, hotel, hold, only, follow,
road, shoulder, gold, don't, old, cold, motor, poet, motive, total, nose, cosy,,
noticed; c) social; (4) poker, yolk, jokes.

Г/ai/

A. (1) a) why, wild, mild, while, my, Michael; b) profile; (2) b) die, nine,,
silence, side, like, climb; d) right, rise, bright; (4) kind, kindly, kite; (5) high.

B. (1) a) climb; b) wife; (2) b) kind, wild, mild, nine, while, silence, profile,,
right, side, kindly, isles, eyes, idea, quite, bright; (4) like, Michael.

/au/

A. (1) a) pound, mouth; b) found; (2) a) thousand; b) south, now, down,,
sound, loud; d) round, drown; (4) couch; (6) how.

B. (2) a) south, mouth; b) drown, out; thousand, down, round, pound,,
found, loud; c) couch.

/01/

A. (1) a) boy, point; (2) b) soil, employ, noise; c) join, enjoy, joint; t; (4) i b)

() ) y, poit; (2) b) oil, employ, d) destroy; (4) coin.

B. (2) b) join, point, coin, soil, noise, joint.

/»/

A. (I) a) Crimea; b) severe; (2) b) dear, near, idea, museum; (3) year; (5)
here.

B. (1) museum; (2) b) accordeon, ears, real, realize, period; d) weary.

23?

/89/

A. (I) a) parent, anywhere, bare, despair, pair. Mary; b) various, farewell;
(2) a) there; b) stare, stairs, dare; (4) care, square, carefully.

B. (1) b) carefully; (2) b) stairs; d) parents, various, Mary.

/U9/

A. (1) a) poor, moor; (2) b) tour, during; c) sure, usual.

B. (2) b) usual; d) during, Europe,

2. sauÖ, smlsiak, (stremdgli, falsiliteitid, Iwamdirj, риэ, Ifrafeuin, Imlaiz, 4mauta, lhaitn, palteitauz, lamralnait, IQiata, Id3uanst, Imsen, Imaikal, lamdgilau, ■Jd3em fsa, ml dormant, Itaifbid, ljuarsp, с|иэ

Exercises p. 152

1. a) /le/ before the mediolingual sonorant /j/ is a a advanced variant of
the fully back /le/, the back part of the tongue moves forward closer to the
position for the mediolingual /j/,

b) /e/ before the dark /1/ is more open.

c) /k, g/ followed by /le/, /!:/ are slightly rounded. They are slightly pal­
atalized before Д/, /se/.

d) /Pit.g/ followed by /vu/, /ж/ are labialized, /p, t, g/ palatalized^efore /i:/.

 

2. Alveolar /t, d, n, 1/ become dental followed by /Э, 9/.

3. Post-alveolar /r/ becomes alveolar after /6, S/, /r/ is devoiced preceded
% Ih i. t, 6/, labialized followed by /d:, k/.

4. In (a) /d, g, g/ are non-labialized, in (b), (c) /d, 3, 1, g/ are labialized
'.followed by /w/»

5. Sonorants /w, j, 1, r/ are devoiced most noticeably in the initial clusters
Up], pr, tw, tr, kw, kl, kr/ when followed by a stressed vowel. In the clusters
M' tJ» kj, И. fr, fj, 9r, Öj, Öw, sw, si, sj, sm, sn/ devoicing is less noticeable.

8. Assimilation of place in final alveolars:

a)/I/ to /p/ b)/d/ to /b/ c)/t/ to /k/
/braip blui/ /0з:Ь pat/ /jak keik/i
/dap bo:d/ /heb boi/ /braik grtn/

/waipwoj"/ /reb rai:t/ d)/d/ to /g/ /hctb walk/ /haig kssj/ /heg ge:l/

e) In/ to /o/ f) /_s/ to /J/

/in Iktudif/ /Ikrismoj IJüpin/

/'sArj glcusiz/

g) reciprocal assimilation before /j/

/igetfa: Ikaut/ /Iwauntja*/

/ai Ih3:d5üi kAmlm/ /Ikudntju-/

/IbleJ Jtt/ /IJudntJiE/

/tkbu3 зэ: ibuks/ /Ikantjus/

) /Э/ is assimilated, following /n, 1, s, z;

/in пэ 1ко;пэ/ /Iwots ss Ipumt/ /IkI la Ibuks/ /Iwesz za ibrednaif/

■9. a) /kief Ipeeldt/ /1Ьлд Itelafaun/

/weis Ipeipa/ /,n _ntf ifedsUfs/

ftfl L?LLz/ /lnd3 Iserfes/ /Ibaö Оэ Jbeibi/ /idaiv biflau/

ftf*l L^str?^bnz/ /^ld Ife/

b) /Itrap bai/ /kJauZ l

/lkra>k iputs/ /IbffcöIdJpli/

/idAb Ifitm/ c) /Islaem 9э Ida:/

/Iheabrem Iskfcm/

/istrirj Imjuizikl instranrant/

Control Tasks p. 155

10. (I) Aspiration in all English words beginning with /p, f, k/. No aspi­ration in Russian words beginning with /п, т, к/.

(2) Short English vowels are not affected by loose GV transition in /top/,
/pit/, /Ipepa/, etc.—close CV transition.

a) Russian soft initial /т, с, д, p/ result from the loose CV transition in
тина, сила, день, ряд, etc. «

(3) Labialization with the lip protrusion in: бук, дуло. Labialization with
no lip protrusion in: топь, поле, Коля, роль, лом, ток, соль, поли, ком. English
consonants followed by /о:, u:/ are pronounced with slight labialization (no lip
protrusion).

1). (1) lateral plosion: curdled, muddle, needless, mottled, at last, red tight* huddle, good looks;

(2) nasal plosion: Britain, oughtn't, admit, madness, witness, partner, cotton,
great number, sudden, captain, at night;

(3) loss of plosion: actor, begged, what kind, back to back, big books, slept,
top coat, black goat, ripe cheepe. • _v

12. /a/—more back in /ka/; /j/ —more high in /lpju:ta/;" /t/ more back In Д

13. Care should be taken 1) to avoid regressive voicing or devoicing of the-sounds given in bold type: /laenikdaut/,- /Ibatfdej/, /Iblakbsd/, /Imedsm/, /10» Ibuk/, /llets Igou/, /Iwuts оэ Itaira/; 2) to pronounce alveolar /s, z, 6, 1/ as-dental, since they are followed by-the interdental /9, Э/: /stksö, hiz Win, Ipcts-Ззт, liz Iflaet, fif8s_f Isimös löea, lsu:3z öam, ttel 9эт, Im 9э/.

Exercises p. 163

1. с, с, с, eau, ou, ough

3. Graphemes Phonemes Letters

b-a-o-b-a-b /Ib-ei-a-b-as-b/ b-a-o-b-a-b

v-e-s-t /v-e-s-t/ v-e-s-t

d-u-l-y /ld-jui-1-i/ d-u-I-y

sh-i-p Я-1-Р/ s-h-i-p

d-i-sh /d-i-J/ d-i-s-h

aw-E-u-1 /la-f-u-1/ a-w-f-u-1

d-aw-n /d-a:-n/ d-a-w-n

1-igh-t /1-ai-t/ 1-i-g-h-t

h-igh /h-ai/ h-i-g-h

w-or-k /w-3:-k/ w-o-r-k

ar-ch-a-i-c /a-lk-ei-i-k/ a-r-c-h-a-i-c

ai-r-y /lea-r-i/ a-i-r-y

1-au-gh /1-cc-f/ 1-a-u-g-h

w-a-tch-ed /w-D-tJ-t/ w-a-t-c-h-e-d

4. <r> = /r/ in rait, alfreid, prei, trai, tven, drai; <our>==/ua/ in tour_T
<ear>=/ra/ in tear.

5. <ed> indicates the past indefinite morpheme -ed which is pronounced*
ft, id, d, d, id, t, d, d/.

6. psekt, bad, реэ, frank, weg, IweSa, sl;n, bs:8, Isfchrj, ssul, bsa, prei_r rein, peil, еэ, farad, pemz, tfcz, pi:s, ffct, wit/, die, bau, bred, rait, pra,

3>!:tj hra, far, teil* nidil, sAri, bfct, breik, meiz, wi:k, IkArsnt, Isferral, vein, sei, -seil, Ikumphnrentr'hea, bb, sfc, mit, hi=l, fea, sent, raud, tfcrn, ho:s, Iben, gert, ■plem, kl:

договор «-¹ упакованный, под запором — засов, пара — подрезать, Стричь — груша, франк — искренний, носить — где, погода — ли, сцена — увиденный, койка — рождение, потолок — скрепленный печатью, подош­ла — душа, голый — медведь, просить, умолять — добыча, дождь — цар­ствование, ведро — бледный, воздух — наследник, оштрафованный — на­ходить, старания, труды — оконные стекла, чай — дразнить, мир — кусок, подвиг — ноги, колдунья — который, дорогой — олень, гнуть — сук, хлеб — воспитанный, правый — писать — обряд, церемония, ровня — дам-■<5а, пляж — бук, слышать — здесь, мех — пихта, ель, рассказ — хвост, мужской — почта, солнце — сын, бить — свекла, ломать — тормоз, куку­руза — лабиринт, слабый — неделя, смородина — течение, серийный — овсянка, кукурузные хлопья, тщетный — вена — флюгер, продавать — ■ячейка, парус — продажа, комплимент — дополнение, волосы — заяц, голубой — дул, море — видеть, мясо — встречать, исцелять — пятка, плата за проезд — ярмарка, цент — посланный — запах, ехал верхом — дорога, бригада — кишеть, хриплый — лошадь, ягода — хоронить, во­рота —походка, ясный — самолет, ключ — набережная

7. (а) me-ter, ca-ring, beau-ty, sour-Iy, sure-ly, tea-cher, cry-ing, six-ty;
i(b) pray-s; praise, child-'s, read-able, mis-rule, penni-less, un-known, dis-like,
im-mortal, ir-rational

8. Mute (r), (e) indicate historical length or the diphthongal nature of the
preceding vowel phonemes (second columns a); (nn), (ss), (tt), (rr) indicate the
short character of the preceding vowel phonemes (second columns b).

9. Эйбел, Эндрю, Эни, Болдуин, Бернард, Дороти, Эстер, Джеральд,
.Хыого, Аира, Джин, Джереми, Кит, Лайонел, Мейбл, Марта, Пий

Control Tasks p. 164

1, face, Eac-ing, nic-er, choic-est, гас-y, princ-ess, age, rag-ing, 1 arg-er, urg-ent, bu!g-y, burg-ess, rage-cl, change-ling, outrage-ous, face-d, nice-ly, huge-ly, engage-ment, change-able

b)

c)

cu-ring fires cured o-ccurred stir-ring stirred pi-ning pined wor-ker wor-king worked tho-rough-ly cul-ture na-tion cit-y red-der chee-ring

2. a) cur-ing fire-s cheer-less cure-d oc-curr-ed stirr-ing stirr-ed pin-ing pine-d work-er work-ing work-ed thorough-ly cult-ure nat-ion cit-y redd-er cheer-ing

3. ai=/er, еэ е, г, э/; /eid, ffesri, /streit/; au = /o:, cc/r/lagast, sd:s, Ы, *!■/; ay, ei = /ei/; /«Ml«, Ьегз/; ее, ео — /%!/: /freit, wei/.

/Ikjua-nrj/

/1Еа(1)эг/

/Itjia-lis/

/kjuad/

/alka:d/

/Ista: -no/

/sterd/

/lpai-шп/

/pamd/

/Ik/

/IW3:-kirj/ /W3>kt/

/ША-Г8-11/

/IkAl-tJa/

/Inei-Jan/

/Isit-i/

/lred-э/

/Itfra-nn/

sed, Ifauntin, (poitnt, Ivilan/; aigh=/ej/: =/i, e/: /Ipfcpl, Jerepans, 'jlepad/; eigh =

4. sealing, ceiling, ceiling; soles, sole, sole, soul, soul; bare, bear, bear, 'bear, bear; pair, pear, pair; write, right, right, right; vain, vain, vanes, vein, vein

Exercises p. 177

1. (I) CVC, СГС; (2) CVCC, СГСС; (3) CVCCC, СГССС; (4) CSVS, CSVS,
ССГС; (5) CV, СГ; (6) CCV (CSV), ССГ; (7) VC, ГС; (8) CCCV (CCSV), СССГ;
(9) VCC (VSG), ГСС'ПО) VCCG (VSCC), ГССС; (11) CCSVSC, СССГСС; (12)
CVC (V) SCC, СГСССС; (13) CCCVC (CCSVS), СССГС; (14) CSVCC (CSVSC),
ССГСС; (151 CCVCCC (CSVSCC), ССГССС

2. (a) lpf>pJ, Ibjtc-gl, Isse-tfal, Itrai-fl, In-äm, lei-pnl, ib-kwal, Шэе-рэпг,
Imai-blz, Ips-tanz, idrse-gnz, Is:-d3ant, Isai-vant, ili-snd, Ihe-raldz, le-randz,
Jpsa-rents, Itaan-d39nts, Ipei-Jants, iskse-falds

(b) CV — CS, CV — CS, CV — CVC, CV — CS, V — CSVS, V — CSVS, CV — CVSC, SV — CSC, CV — CVSC, CSV — CSC, V — CVSC, CV — CVSC, SV — CSC, CV — SVSCC, V — SVSCC, CV — SVSCC, CVC — CVSCC, CV — CVSCC, CV-CVSCC, CCV-CVSCC

3. 2, 2, 4, 4, 2, 4, 3, 5, 3, 4, 3, 4, 6, 2, 3, 5, 6

 

7. Syllables	Syllabographs
W3:k	work
	■wor-king
1уз:-кэ	wor-ker
pamd	pined
Ipai-mq	pi-ning
Jsta;rlij	stir-ring
Э-lljgid	o-ccurred
kjuad	cured
(tfis-lis	cheer-less
lkjua-пл	cu-ring
f tfta-rtrj	chee-ring
lfa(i)9-ni]	li-rtng
lred-(d)a	red-der
(net-Jan	na-tion
ikAt-tfa	cul-ture
J9A-r9-Ii	tho-rough-ly

Control Tasks p. 178

1. (a) at, aunt, elks, asks, ebbed

(b) took, lifts, texts, clenched, tip, struck, strays, thrust, bet, fact, fret,
price

(c) pray, straw, boy, pea

(a) ил, от, астр

(b) рад, ЗАГС, горсть, скетч, взрыв, всласть, сфинкс, чувств, сон, Минск,
гипс, здесь, злак

(c) мгла, кто, та, что

2. а) Ь) | «) Ь) I а) Ь) I а) Ь) | а) Ь) I а) Ь) I а) Ь)
st|lm|bk|ms|sk|gv|tp etc.

3. IkAm-fe-ta-bl, Ik-o-hds, bi-ffad, graund, Ikt-tfan, fpaen-trr, IstA-dr, isev-ral,
tAp-lstsaz, lbsd-ru:m, Inaisa-rr, 1Ьа9-гшт, Ifai-m-tfa, Imai-dan, 9un, illek-ltn-si-ti,
Idsae-njue-n, lfeb-шэ-п, Is-gast, sap-ltem-Ьэ, эк-lteu-ba, nau-lvem-ba, di-lsem-Ьэ,
Iwen-zdi,' Itju-zdi, 10s:-zdi

4. pa-rents, fire, piu-ral, гц-ral, din-ner, mar-ry, dis-ap-pear, speak-ing,
writ-ing, play-ing, walk-ing, stand-ing, pas-sing, break-fast, po-ta-toes, to-rna-
toes, cof-fee, cab-bage, ba-na-nas, ber-ries, pud-ding, pears, beer, shop-pmg,
iron-ing, house-work, mis-take, fish-ing

5. an aim for it; a blacked eye; not a tall; that stuff; I saw her eyes; the way
to cut it; I saw the meat; white shoes; might rain; keeps ticking; grade A

9-182

241'

Exercises p. 136

1. лишенный помощи, неотчужденный, неизменный, невооруженный,
неаспирированный, нечистый, противоциклонный, антинациональный, не­
уплата, иногородний, без остановок, бывший министр, вновь открывать,,
реорганизовать, перепаковать, оплаченный заранее, писать с орфографиче­
скими ошибками, неправильное применение, плохое правление, неправильно,
цитировать, положить не на то место, одетый слишком просто, младший офи­
цер, малонаселенный, вице-адмирал, вице-консул, предыстория, ультрасов­
ременный

2. красивый, старомодный, злой (раздражительный), рассеянный, с не­
покрытой головой, домашнего изготовления

 

4. яблоня, свидетель, рассвет, день рождения, овчарка, наволочка,,
школьник, чемодан, расписание, чернильница, прическа, домашняя хозяйка,,
всё, камин, (радио)вещание, авторучка, любой

5. бабочка, вновь прибывший, растяпа, кузнец, мужское пальто (ши­
нель), самолет, василек, соусник, масленка, закладка для книг

6. классная доска — черная доска; дрозд — черная птица; сейф — проч*
ная коробка; переутомиться — сверх работы (задания); лютик — желтая
чашка; высокий комод (бокал на высокой ножке) — высокий мальчик

Control Tasks p. 188

1. lair-raid, Ibirdcage, Icoalmine, Iteapot, Iwashstand, Imail-bag, ldance-|rnu-
sic, (grandfather, I hand | writing, Ishop [keeper, Uadybird, loffice-boy, Iwaiting-room,
I dinner-1 jacket, Itape rejcorder, I labour exchange, IgrornidUloor, Iknee-ldeep, Icross-
Iquestion, Iflat-lfooted, Ishop-lwindow, hot-iwater-|bottle, waste-lpaper-jbasket,
Ipost-lgraduate, Ivice-1 chancellor, Isecondhand

2. l£ebs(a)nt—ablsent отсутствующий—уклоняться
I k u mpres—kaml pres компресс—сжимать
IkDnsDit—kanlSDjt супруг Q/cm.) — общаться
Iprodjurs—praldjtns продукция—предъявлять
linfiks—mlftks инфикс {гром,)—втыкать, вставлять
Ikumbam—kamlbain комбайн—объединять
lknnsa(:)t-kanlsa:t концерт, согласие—договариваться
Idezat — dilzs:t пустыня—бросать, покидать

lautlei—autllei издержки — тратить

Exercises p. 196

1. /lama—lami/ /э—i/; /ikslpenmsnt —ikslpenment/ /э—е/; /э11и;зэп—•
111ц:зад/ /э—i/; /sam—sAm/ /э—л/j /Itetem—ltel(h)im/ /э—i/; /Ы—8«V
/э—«/; /Isite— Isiti/ /э—i/; /vslraiati—Ivesnss/ /э—еэ/; /lfared—foitaraid/
/э—э:/; /lestimabl — lestimeit/ /э—ei/

2. Iprautest, Ikuntent, IktHnent, la&bstreekt, Isesfselt, Ikaenut, Ibpuk, lbl»ga:d,
lekspoit, ШлтЬлд, lekspait, Imsti'tjutt

3. lo:fn, Isejan, Ispejel, Idifikalt, 5эт, кэп, Ikunferans, Idikfansn, leipral,
hav

 

 

4. a) /iilmijn/	/ju:lza:p/ /u:lgand3/	/eilo:ta/
/lllevn/	/Itil/pemtirj/
/enlsam/	Mpltain/	/Ikoiaut/
/sebsltrskt/	/з:1Ьет/
/ubldsektiv/	/aildie/	/hrarUnda/
/orlkestral/	/autlwit/	/jualrei3J3n/
Ь) в/л/да	х/л/жу	пл/л/дбв
н/л/га	с/л/сна	пр/л/вёл
гр/л/за	Др/Л/Bl	п/л/шу
г/л/лбв	п/л/ля	ц/ыв/на

«т/л/рбн ст/л/лй /д'и^е/р£вня

б/л/рбдка дв/л/рбв /в'и^е/сёлье

ControlTasks p. 197

1. llaätjkfc, simlphstti, Iprautest, Iskailik, paniOten, Ibuldug, lautda: (damtgrum, Imtu, Imildju:, IwudkAt, lhatbam, IhAmpbsk, Ihaiwei, Isimplifai 4 haibrau, Iktmvoi, Irembau, Iremkaut, Undswea, tomatjua

4, Ээ Igcudian Injuspeipar | izfeimas far its misprints l| wai 13saz i:vn э Igadian ■imisprmt | pralza:vd in Ibras fa prlstenti | злт ]э:г эГдэи | Bfi= el vinau Iwam ba | dalsaidid ta Iput лр a Iplaak | m innar av Iftiip haup Iwnhs | its moust JfeiÖf| l ip iprobabh Iwitnst halbitjuei j| ^ Isau Imenjnn) iz lemmens эг э Iwit | ■Irsekanlts: j tq Ikntik i it waz Idjirii ipleist J э1Ьлу iz ljugual !stt т>п пэ lwo:l | эп lld et э lsmo:l IritfualJ ai daunt IwBnt э sta At)lgreitf| sed 9a relsipiant | at it fkbusli j bat öez aunlr liwin el in filip ] p Jju:v put in JtiK || lhau t bi: l Igaspt 9э Imsenid3mant [| wi wa lkeaf| ta I tfek wt0 9a Igadian ||

GLOSSARY OF PHONETIC TERMS

ACCENT /'ffikssnt/ is stress and pitch combined. If a stress occurs in the stepping head without a downward step in pitch, the word concerned is not accented. Stress in such words is usually weakened because there is no change of pitch accompanying them. See STRESS.

ACCENTEME /' ajksentfcm/. The distinctive function makes word accent a separate suprasegmental, or prosodic phonological unit, e.g. primary and weak word accentemes perform word distinctive functions in English: 'billow, be'low, in Russian: мука, му~ка. It also performs form-distinctive functions in Englishr 'import — to im'port, and in Russian: руки (pi), руки (genitive).

ACCENTUAL NUCLEUS /a5k'sentju₃l 'njtrkhss/— that syllable in the word which is effected by a change in pitch direction.

ACCIDENCE/'eksidens/— grammatical rules about the changes in the form of words connected with different modifications of their sound nature. For example: foot — feet, have — has — had.

ACCOMMODATION /e,kuma'deijen/ — adaptation to different adjacent sounds, e.g. in /tut/ /t/ is labialized under the influence of /и/ and Ы1 is a little bit advanced under the influence of /t/.

ACCURACY OF PRONUNCIATION /'aekjurasi av pre,nAnsi'eiJan/ - cor-rect and distinct pronunciation.

_ ACOUSTIC PHONETICS /a'kuistik fau'netiks/ — a branch of phonetics which deals with physical properties of sounds.

ADJACENT SOUNDS /a'^eisant 'saundz/ — sounds that follow each other.

AFFRICATES /'tefnkits/ — the sounds formed during the separation of the articulating organs: in their articulation the complete closure gradually and uninterruptedly opens into a flat-slit narrowing: /tf, ä^U

ALLOCHRONES /'telekraunz/ — quantitative variants of a phoneme-The term is used by D. Jones and other foreign phoneticians.

ALLOPHONES /'selafaunz/ — qualitative variants or members of one and the same phoneme, which never occur in identical positions, but are said to be m complementary distribution.

ALLOPHONIC TRANSCRIPTION imWtvmk trens'knpjenl - this type of transcription is based on the principle "one symbol per allophone". Tin* transcription provides a special sign for each variant of each phoneme. A pho-2TvJ^{S reü}?f^teä ⁱⁿ.^th?^s transcription as a unity of all its allophones. The sym-ets [1 ^{аП allophomc trans}cription are usually placed between square brack-

th, ™S*^NAT^I0N* ?^{F S0U}NDS tfllWiuaSm ev 'saundz/ - changes oj fЙА Ä^{m fferent denvat}>ves from the same root or in different grammatical

ALVEOlK ftffl P p the JppeTterth! /el'viele 'ri-dsen/ - bow-lifie prominence ^V'^T1 *"#• or ALVEOLI /el'vielai/ - depressions in the 8/оске* tbe upper teeth. !

aEatn^Ha,-' Vⁿckm-lltr^rVhS °^{f the Same mOrP}
the &YSW ^C0NS,9NANTS Ä8Ä. 'bns₃nants/ - articulated by
for exallS /t _d^gUs' }^{hIch makeS a com}Plete obstruction with the alveoles,
ALVEOlK ftffl™¹⁸ 'P«nt/ - the central point of the upper №
JppeTterth! /el'viele 'ri-dsen/ - bow-lifie prominence behind

S^^issegi™**"—* ^A"" "^ne"^liti

ARTICULATORY PHONETICS /o/tikjtiteitan fsu'netiks/ — the de­scription and classification of speech sounds articulated by the speech apparatus,

ASPECTS OF A PHONEME /'jespakts sv э 'faunfcm/: a phoneme is a dia­
lectical unity of three aspects: I. material, real and objective; 2. abstractional
and generalized; 3. functional. ..... _л

ASPIRATION /,sespi'reijW - a slight puff of breath which is beard after the explosion of /p, t, k/ in initial position.

ASSIMILATION /9,simi'leiy9n/ — the result of adaptation of one sound to another. It can be progressive, regressive or reciprocal. Most commonly the sounds which undergo assimilation are immediately adjacent in the stream oh speech. For example in сдал Id is voiced under the influence of Ы; in hotse.-shoe Is/ is pronounced as /j/ under the influence of Ц1 which follows it,

ATTITUDTNAL FUNCTION /, eeti'tjudinl 'fArjkjW — this function fs" performed by intonation when the speaker expresses his attitude to what he is saying by intonation alone.

В

BACK-/bask/— the term is used in phonetics to characterize the vowels, which are formed with the bulk of the tongue in the back part of the mouth cavity, when it is raised towards the junction between the hard and the soft parts of the palate; back vowels are: /u-, v, o:/ and the nuclei of the diphthongs /oi, ээ/.

BACK ADVANCED VOWELS /'bak ad'vcwist 'vauslz/ - the term char-acterizes vowels, which are formed with the back-advanced position of the bulk of the tongue: /u, at, л/ and the nuclei of the diphthongs /эй, иэ/.

BACK SECONDARY FOCUS /'bask 'sekenden 'fsukes/ - it is formed by raising the back part of the tongue towards the soft palate (velarisation); e.g. /w/ and "dark" [1] are pronounced with the back secondary foci.

BICENTRAL /bai'sentral/ — formed with two places of articulation,

BICENTRAL CONSONANTS /bai'sentrsl 'kunsötlents/ — consonants ar­ticulated with two centres of complete or incomplete obstruction: /w, I, j> 3i tS, аз/. E.g. English "dark" [1] is bicentrai, because one place, or centre of articu­lation is formed by the sides (or one side) of the tongue, which are lowered. The other centre of articulation is formed by the back of the tongue raised to the soft palate, which produces the effect of "hardness".

BILABIAL /bai'leibial/ — articulated by the upper and the lower hp. Bilabial consonants are: /p, w, b, ml.

BLOCK [bluk/ — to prevent the air from flowing out of the mouth cavity when the soft paiate is lowered and the air passes out of the nasal cavity. The air passage through the mouth cavity is blocked in the articulation of /m, n/.

BLOW /blau/ — to'direct the air from the mouth or nasal cavity.

BODY /'b-odi/ - the whole.

BODY OF THE TONGUE /'budi sv 5a 'Urj/ — the whole of it.

BREATH /breOA— the process of blowing the air out of the mouth or nasal cavity through the bronchi and the wind-pipe, or blowing it into the lungs,

BRONCHI /'brarjkai/ — two main divisions of the trachea, leading into the lungs,

BULK /bilk/ see BODY.

С

CACUMINAL /b'kju-mmsl/ — articulated by the tip and the blade of the tongue raised against the back slope of the teethridge. Ivl is.a cacuminal sound.

CARDINALS /'ka-draelz/ — an international standard set of artificial vowel sounds which, according to D. Jones, can be produced with the bulk of the tongue at the four cardinal points in the front part of the mouth cavity and at the four cardinal points in the back part of the mouth cavity.

CARRYING POWER /'каггид 'раиэ/— inherent properties of sounds connected with their sonority, which are due to their individual articulatory and acoustic characteristics.

CENTRAL VOWELS /'sentral 'vauslz/ — vowels formed by the central part oi the tongue; a central high vowel is the Russian vowel /ы/ and a central low vowel is the Russian vowel /a/.

CENTRING DIPHTHONGS /'sentnrj 'difGDrjz/ ha, еэ, эе, иэ/ — falling diphthongs, which glide to hi which is considered to be "central". Russian phoneticians refer hi to mixed vowels.

CHECKED VOWELS /'tfekt 'vaualz/ — short stressed vowels pronounced without any decrease in the force of articulation and immediately followed by consonants, e.g. hi in the word city.

CHEEKS /tffcks/ - sides <A the mouth cavity.

CHRONEME /'krauntm/ — a unit, which shows that length is phonem-icaliy relevant (there are three chronemes in the Estonian language and only one in English and in Russian}.

CLASSIFICATION /,klassifi'keifan/ — the method which studies common properties of the investigated phenomena and which is used to arrange them systematically.

. CLASSIFY /'klaesrfai/ — to arrange the common properties of (phonetic) phenomena according to their typical characteristics.

CLAUSE TERMINAL /'kbas Чз:ттэЦ — this term is used by American descriptivists. According to H. A, Gleason there are three clause terminals in English: fading //, rising I/I, sustained /-*-/.

CLEAR SOUND /'klia 'saund/ — the sound which is made softer due to additional articulatory work, E.g, the raising of the middle part of the tongue to the hard palate (front secondary focus) "softens", or clears III in initial posi­tion, compare: lily, light and bill, hilt.

CLOSE NEXUS /'klaus 'neksas/ — close connection between a short checked vowel and a consonant which follows it. For example: /i+t/ in the word city.

CLOSE TRANSITION /'klaus trsn'si3an/ — articulation of two neigh­bouring sounds when the first stage of the second sound takes place already during the medial stage of the first sound, e.g. palatalization in the Russian word пил, labialization in the word two /tu:/.

COALESCENT /,keus'lesnt/ — bilateral assimilation of two sounds when in the result they give a new sound. For example: /s/ + /j7 -+ISI in mission /'misjen/ -+ /'mijW.

COMBINATORY ALLOPHONES /kam'birotan ' ffllaufsunz/ — variants of a phoneme which appear in speech as a result of assimilation and adaptation or of the specific ways of joining sounds together.

COMMUNICATIVE CENTRE /ka'mjurmketiv 'sentg/ — a word or a group of words which conveys the most important point of communication in the sense-group or sentence,

COMMUNICATIVE TYPES /ka'mjmnikativ 'taips/ - the types of sen­tences which are differentiated according to the type of intonation. V. A. Vas-silyev gives the following communicative types: 1. Categoric and non-categoric statements. 2, Disjunctive questions. 3. Commands, 4, Exclamations, 5. Spe­cial questions. 6. Alternative questions. 7. General questions and 8. Requests.

COMMUTATION METHOD /,komjar'teijen 'meGed/— one of the basic methods of phonemic investigation, which consists in the discovery of minimal pairs.

COMPARATIVE PHONETICS /ksm'paarstiv fou'netika/ - this branch of phonetics studies the correlation between the phonetic system of two or more languages,

COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION /,komplementär! /hstn'bju-jW — arrangement of allophones of one and the same phoneme, which occurs in different contexts, but in a definite set of them.

COMPLETE ASSIMILATION /kam'plfct 9,sirm'leijW - assimilation when one of the two adjacent sounds fully coincides with the other. For example: less sugar /lej 'Jugs/.

COMPONENT /kam'psunant/ — a part of the whole.

CONSONANT /'krnssnsnt/ — a sound of noise, which is formed by A complete or incomplete obstruction. As a rule, consonants are non-syllabic,

CONSTITUTIVE FUNCTION OF SPEECH SOUNDS /'kunstitjtttiV 'fArjkJsn ev 'spirtf 'saundz/ — the function to constitute the material forms of morphemes, words and sentences.

CONSTRICTIVE FRICATIVE SOUNDS/ksn'stnktiv'frikativ'saundz/— in the articulation of these sounds the air passage is narrowed or constricted to-such an extent that the air passing through it produces noise or friction. No⁵ resonance is possible in the production of pure fricatives /f, 6, s, J¹, h/. Voiced fricatives are produced with an admixture of musical tone, they are: /v, b_r z, 3/.

CONSTRICTIVE SONANTS /kan'striktiv 'saunants/ (resonants) — in the articulation of these sounds the narrowing for the air passage is not wide enough to eliminate the noise or friction completely; on the other hand it is wide enough to make the cavity function as a resonator. They are: /w, 1, r, j/.

CONTACT /'kxntsekt/ — a closure made by the organs of speech.

CONTIGUOUS /ksn'tigjues/— adjacent or neighbouring syllables or sounds (usually consonants).

CONTINUANTS /kan'tmjuants/ — consonants that can be prolonged dur­ing the stop-stage of their articulation. For example: im, n, 1, r, 3/.

CONTOID /ken'toid/ — the term is used by the American linguist K. Pike to characterize noise consonants. ^_

DARK SOUND /'dak 'saund/ — the sound which is made harder due to additional articulatory work — the raising of the back part of the tongue to the soft palate {back secondary focus), [w] and [1] "dark are pronounced with the back secondary focus.

DEFECTS OF SPEECH /di'fekts ev 'spltf/ — drawbacks in pronuncia­tion.

DEFINITION OF A SOUND /,defi'mjan av a 'saund/ — the description of the complex of properties characteristic of a sound, which helps to attribute this sound to a certain type,

DENTAL CONSONANTS /'dentl 'ktnsgnents/— consonants produced with the tip and the blade of the tongue placed against the upper front teeth. For example: It, d, n/,

DEPRESSION OF THE TONGUE /di'prejen ev 6a 'ton/ — low position of the tongue in the mouth cavity.

DESCENDING SCALE /di'sendirj 'skeil/ — gradual lowering of the voice pitch.

DESCRIPTIVE PHONETICS /dis'knphv feu'netiks/ — studies the con­temporary phonetic system of a language, i.e. the system of its pronunciation, and gives a description of all the phonetic units of this language,

DEVOICE /di'vois/ — to pronounce with the vocal cords switched cut. Voiced consonants are gradually devoiced in the terminal position and under the influence of the adjacent voiceless consonant (not so much as in the Russian language).

DIACHRONIC APPROACH /,daie'krtmk a'prgutf/ _ analysis of the phenomena which refer to different periods of development,

DIACRITIC MARKS /,daie'krifik 'masks/ — additional symbols used to characterize separate phonemes or their allophones. For examples, the Russian й, the German Ü. Diacritic marks help to use the inventory of the letters of the alphabet, without enlarging it.

DIALECTOLOGY 7,daialek'tolEd3i/ — the branch of phonetics which studies the dialectal differences in pronunciation.

DIAPHONE ['daiafaun/ — allophone of one and the same phoneme, pro­nounced by different people.

• DIAPHRAGM /'daiafram/ — that part of the power mechanism which separates the cavity of the chest from the abdominal cavity.

DICTAPHONE /'diktafsun/ — the apparatus that records and reproduc­es oral speech.

DICTION /'dikjW — a way of speaking. The selection and control of «words to express ideas (command of vocabulary, grammatical correctness, affec­tive word order, etc.).

DIGRAPH /'daigrcuf/ — combination of two letters equivalent to one phoneme. For example: ее /fc/, sh /J/, th /0, 5/.

DIMINUTION OF INTENSITY /,dimi'n]u>Jan sv m'tensiti/ — lowering of the voice intensity, which results from the gradual weakening of the vocal cords vibration.

DIPHTHONG /'difSDrj/ — a vowel phoneme which consists of two ele­ments: a nucleus and a glide. The first element of a diphthong is more loud and distinct, the formation of the second element of a diphthong is not accom­plished. English diphthongs can he normal — this term is used because they are similar to the diphthongs normally occurring in other languages: /ei, ai, 01, аи, au/ and centring: /ia, еэ, ээ, ua/ — they are called so because their glide /a/ is considered to bö a central vowel.

DIPHTHONGIZATION //Ш ongai'zeiJan/ — slight shifting of the or­gans of speech position within the articulation of one and the same vowel (these organs are mostly — the tongue, the lips and the lower jaw). Diphthongization changes the quality of the sound during its articulation,

DIPHTHONGOIDS /'difÖarjgoids/ — diphthongized sounds. In English they are /!:/ and lal. The /I;/ articulation begins with /i/ which glides up to the l'l position and ends up in the /j/ position. The /it/ articulation begins with /u/ which glides up to the /u/ position and ends in the /w/ position.

DISCREPANCY /dis'krepansi/ — non-coincidence, divergence of proper­ties.

DISJUNCTIVE QUESTION /dis'dsAnktiv 'kwestjan/ — a question which consists of two parts, characterized by the succession of falling and rising tones (nuclear or terminal), used to express alternative ideas.

DISSIMILATION /,disimi'leijW — substitution of one sound for anoth­er, similar in tamber but different] articulatorily: пролубь, лыцарь instead of прорубь, рыцарь.

DISTINCTIVE FUNCTION OF SPEECH SOUNDS /dis'tirjktiv ЧлпкХэп av 'spJitf 'saundz/ — it is manifested most conspicuously in minimal pairs when the opposition of speech sounds is the only phonetic means of distinguish­ing one member of that pair from the other.

DISTRIBUTIONAL ANALYSIS /^istn'bjutfangl a'naälisis/ — this meth-od helps to establish the distribution of speech sounds, i.e. all the positions or combinations in which each speech sound of a given language occurs (or does not occur) in the words of the language.

DISYLLABIC /'disi'lffibik/ - consisting of two syllables.

DORSAL CONSONANTS /'dasl 'konsanonts/ — pronounced with the blade the tongue against either the upper teeth or the alveolar ridge. For example: Russian /t/.

DORSUM /'do:sam/ — back.

DORSUM OF THE TONGUE /'dasam эч бэ 'Urj/ — the middle and back parts of the tongue.

DOUBLE STRESS /'diibl 'stres/ — two stresses within one and the same word, e.g. disagree /'diss'grt/.

DRAWL /drwl/ — to pronounce slowly.

DURATION /djua'reifan/ - length.

DYNAMIC ACCENT /dai'nasmik 'ffiksant/— force accent based mainly on the expiratory effort.

EAR TRAINING /'la'tremin/ - training of the ear in differentiating and distinguishing phonetic phenomena.

EDGES OF THE TONGUE /'etfeiz av 5a 'Urj/ — the rims ol the tongue.

ELISION /i'Ii3sn/ — dropping off of a vowel in initial or terminal posi­tion. For example: 'tis instead of if is, th' eternal instead of the eternal.

EMOTION /i'msujan/ — display of excitation, irritation, joy and other feelings. In speech they are expressed by different phonetic and lexicostylistic means, such as emphatic stress, emphatic intonation, etc.

EMPHASIS /'emfesis/ — combination of the expressive means of the lan­guage to single out emphatic words, groups of words or whole sentences.

EMPHATIC /im'fffitik/ — that which refers to emphasis,

ENCLITIC /m'khtik/ — unstressed word or syllable, which refers to the preceding stressed word or syllable. For example: be, not in 'may be, 'cannot Together with the stressed word enclitics form one phonetic unit.,

EPENTHESIS /e'penössis/ — the occurrence of a sound in a word, in which it is not pronounced. For example: length may be pronounced as/Ierj(k)8/, glimpse — as /ghm(p)s/ with the epenthetic /k/ and /p/.

EXHALATION /^kshe'leijen/— breathing the air out of the lungs and the mouth cavity.

EXHALE /eks'heil/ — to breathe the[air out of the lungs and the mouth cavity.

EXPERIMENTAL PHONETICS /eks,pen'mentl fsu'netiks/ — the branch of phonetics which studies phonetic phenomena through observation and cal­culations with the help of different apparatus and devices'.

EXPIRATION /.ekspai'reijen/ — breathing the air out. See EXHALA-TJON. .

EXPLOSION /iks'plsussn/, or plosion /'ркизгп/^-nofse made by the air, when it is suddenly released through a ccmplete obstruction. The sounds /p, t, k/ are pronounced with a plosion, or explosion.

EXPRESSION /iks'prejW — thoughts and emotions expressed by words end i tonation.

FACULTATIVE PHONEMES /'fsfcsltativ 'faunlmz/ — such phonemes inJEnglish are Ы and /ээ/. They are not used in all idiolects, where they are replaced by /w,»/. But in those idiolects in which they are used they may dis­tinguish words in minimal pairs, e.g. which — который, witch —- ведьма, more — больше, maw — пасть.

PALL /Ы/ — lowering of the voice pitch within a stressed syllable,

FAMILY OF^SOUNDS /'famuli ev 'saundz/ — D. Jones' term in his pho­neme definition,

FAUCAL CONSONANTS /'fokal, 'kxnssnants/ — occlusive noise conso­nants which are articulated by the soft palate raised against the back wall of the pharynx, which is accompanied by a nasal plosion and results in opening the nasal cavity for the flow of air. Combinatory allophones,articulated in that manner are [t] in the word button or the Russian [6] in обман.

FIXED ORGANS OF SPEECH /'fikst 'otgsnz'av 'spW/, —they are: the upper teeth and the teethridge, the hard palate and the pharyngeal wall.

FIXED WORD,ACCENT /'fikst 'ws:d 'absent/ — this type of accent is
characterized by the fixed position, of stress. ' ' . ^

FLAPPED CONSONANTS /'flsept 'komssnents/ — articulated by a single tap of the tip of the tongue against the teethridge. For example: [r] in sorry, very.

FLAT NARROWING /'flset 'naramrj/ — passage for the flow of air, which ^{is m}°« »г less flat. The sounds /f, v/ are pronounced with the flat narrowing.

FLOW OF AIR /'flau sv W —the stream of air.

FOCUS /'fsukss/ (pi. FOCI /'fsusai/) — the place in the mouth cavity,
in which the obstruction (complete or incomplete) is formed in the articulation
of a consonant. Front secondary focus is formed by the middle part of the tongue
raised against the hard palate. Back secondary focus is formed by the back part
of the tongue raised against the soft palate. ?•"

FORELINGUAL /'blingwal/ — articulated by the tip'of the tongue raised agams,t the upper teeth or the teethridge. For example: /t, d, n/are lore-lingual consonants.;

FORMANTS /'foments/ — the regions of the spectrogram, which are cor­related with the qualities of vowels or their tembral characteristics.

FORTIS /'foctia/ — strong.

FORTIS CONSONANTS ['tehs 'kpnsanants/ — voiceless plosives and constrictives, which are pronounced with strong muscular tension and strong expiratory effort (compare with Ienis consonants). The consonants /f, p, if are fortis.

FREE ACCENTUAL VARIANTS /'frt ajk'sentjual 'vsariants/— they are variants of individual pronunciation — interidmlectal variants. E.g. 'hos­pitable, hos'pitabte,' рапорт, рапорт.

FREE VARIATIONS — intraidiolectal and interidiolectal variations which are spontaneous, unintentional, non-functional, non-distinctive.

FREE WORD ACCENT /'Frt 'wa:d 'asksant/ — the type of accent which is characterized by the free accidence of the word accent; in different words of the language different syllables can be stressed — the first, the second, the third. Free word accent has two subtypes: a) constant, which always remains on the same morpheme: wonder, wonderfully and b) shifting, which changes its place: сад, садовод.

FRICATIVE CONSONANTS /'fnkativ 'künsanants/ - produced by fric­tion of the flow of air through the narrowing formed by articulatory organs. For example: /v, s. z/.

FRICriONLESS /'frik/anlrs/ — produced without any audible friction.

FRICTIONLESS CONTINUANTS /'fnkfanlis kan'trajuants/— the term may be used in reference to constrictive sonants /w, r, j/, which are pronounced with little noise and can be prolonged or continued. "A consonant having the articulation of a fricative but pronounced with weak force so that little or no friction is audible." (D. Jones)

FRONT OF THE TONGUE /'frAnt sv 9э Члп/ — the blade and the tip of the tongue. The blade and the middle of the tongue in the terminology of Eng­lish phoneticians,

FRONT-RETRACTED VOWELS /'frAtit n'trsktid 'vaualz/ — produced with the front but a bit retracted position of the bulk of the tongue. The vowel /i/ is a front-retracted sound. It is retracted in comparison with the vowel /k/ which is fully front. The nucleus of the diphthong /au/ is also front-retracted.

FRONT VOWELS /'fmnt 'vaualz/ — vowels articulated when the bulk of the tongue moves forward and its front part is raised highest towards the hard palate: /fc, i, e, ae/ and the nuclei of the diphthongs /ia, ei, еэ, ai, au/.

FULLY VOICED /'fuh 'voist/ — consonants pronounced with the vocal cords vibrating from the first to the last stage of their articulation.

FUNCTIONAL /'lAnkJanl/ — phonological, connected with differentia-tory function.

FUNCTIONAL PHONETICS /'fAukJanl fau'netiks/ - the branch of pho­netics which studies the purely linguistic aspect of speech sounds,

FUNCTIONS OF A PHONEME /'lAnkJanz av э 'faunfcm/ — in speech a phoneme performs three functions: 1. distinctive, 2. constitutive and 3. re-cognitive; they are inseparable.

FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY /Дп da'mental 'frtkwansi/ - the fre­quency of the vibrations of the vocal cords over their whole length.

FUNDAMENTAL TONE /,knda'raentl 'taun/ - the sound wave which results from the vibrations oE the whole physical body and which has the lowest frequency.

G

GENERAL AMERICAN, G.A. /'cfcenaral e'raenkon/ - the most wide­spread type of educated American speech.

GENERAL PHONETICS /'dgeneral fou'netiks/ — analysis, description, and comparison of phonetic phenomena in different languages.

GENERAL PHONOLOGICAL RULES /'азепэгэ! _yfauna'bdgrksl 'rulz/ — these rules make it possible to establish the phonemic status of sounds without direct reference to their distribution; they are; 1. the law of great phonemic dissimilarity; 2. the law of conditioned allophonic similarity.

GENERAL QUESTION /'cfcenaral 'kwestjW — the type of a question which demands a yes or no answer, it is pronounced with the rising tone.

GLIDE /glaid/ — that part of a diphthong which constitutes its additional element, the full articulation of which is not accomplished. For example: hi and hi in /ai, ei, is, еэ/ are glädes.

GLOTTAL SOUND /'glutl 'saund/ — when the glottis is narrowed during exhalation, the air, passing out of the mouth cavity, produces an /h/ like sound; that is why /h/ is considered by Prof. A. L. Trakhterov and British and Ameri­can phoneticians to be a glottal or laryngeal consonant (not a pharyngeal one).

GLOTTAL STOP /'glut! 'sttp/ — a sound which reminds a slight cough and is articulated by the vocal cords, before a vowel sound is heard, in cases of emphatic speech.

GLOTTIS /'gltitis/ — the space between the vocal cords, which is the en­trance to the trachea, or the windpipe.

GRAPHEME /'grssffcm/ — an orthographic unit with which a phoneme can be correlated, e.g. t, e, n are graphemes in ten.

GROOVE-SHAPED DEPRESSION /'gruv 'jeipt di'prejen/ is formed in the middle part of the blade of the tongue in the articulation of Is, z/.

H

HARD PALATE /'had 'pmhtl ~ the roof of the mouth.

HEAD /hed/ — stressed syllables preceding the nucleus together with the intervening unstressed syllables.

■ HEIGHT /halt/ — the width of the resonating cavity in the articulation of vowels.

HEIGHT OF THE TONGUE /'hait av бэ 'W — the height to which the bulk of the tongue is raised and which determines the level of the raised bulk of the. tongue: high, mid, or low.

HETEROGENEITY /.hetarabi'nfciti/ — mutually differentiating pro­perties¹ in the sounds which are compared.

HETEROGRAPHY /,het9'rt graft] — the use of similar letters for differ­ent sounds, for example the letter с corresponds to the sound /k/ in the word can and to the sound /s/ in city.

HIATUS /hai'eitas/ — combination of two vowels which belong to differ­ent syllables, For example: doirtg/'dmrj/ — internal hiatus, to order /tu 'o:ds/ — external hiatus.

HIEROGLYPH /'haiaraghf] — a written sign which may be equivalent to a sound, syllable, or a whole notion.

HIGH-PJTCHED SOUND /'hai 'pitjt 'saund/ — a sound, which is high in tone.

HIGH POSITION OF THE TONGUE /'hai ps'zijan sv öa 'tArj/—the position when the dorsum and the front part of the tongue are raised high to the roof of the mouth, but not so high as to produce an audible friction. High narrow vowels /'hai 'nasrau 'vauslz/ /!:, и, ы, у/ are pronounced with the bulk of the tongue raised more higher than for /i, u/, which also belong to the group of high vowels but to their broad variety.

HIGH SPEED X-RAY PHOTOGRAPHY /'hai 'spM 'eks'rei ШтэдгэЫ -one of the methods used in experimental phonetics, wnich consists in the pho­tography of X-rayed organs of speech in the process of articulation,

HISS /his/ — noise produced when the air passes through a round narrow­ing and produces hissing noise. The sounds /s, J¹/ are hissing consonants.

HISTORICAL ASSIMILATION /his'tunksl a^imi'leijen/ — sound chang­es, which are the result of the historical development of the language.

HISTORICAL PHONETICS /his'tunkalГ fau'netiks/ - that branch of phonetics, which studies phonetic components on the diachronic level; it is a part of the history of a language, which studies the history of the development of the phonetic laws,

HOLD /hsuld/ — the second stage of a single sound articulation (retention, central, medial stage).

HOMOGENEITY /_#hum9d3&'nhti/ — articulatory similarity of two ■sounds, which is based on similar articulatory work of the speech organs. The

sounds /p, b/ are homogeneous because they are both plosive and bilabial noise consonants.

HOMOGRAPHS /'hnmagrcufs/ — words'.that are similar in orthography but different in pronunciation and meaning^ For example: tear /tea/ разры­вать and tear /tia/ слеза.

HOMOPHONES /'hnmafaunz/ — words that are similar in pronunciation but different in orthography and meaning. For example: air — hair воздух — волосы; buy — bye покупать — что-л. маловажное; knight — night рыцарь — ночь; not — knot нет — узел; or — ore либо — руда.

HYPHEN /'haifan/ — a graphic sign which serves to show syllabic bound­ary.

IDEOGRAM /'idja(u)graem/ — 1. a symbol or a picture which represents and conveys an idea of an object without using its name, for example: a numeri­cal or a pictorial road sign; 2. a symbol representing a word, but not the sounds which constitute it.

IDIOLECT /'idraulekt/ — the individual speech of a member of a language community.

IDIOPHONE /,idia'foun/ — one and the same speech sound which is pro­nounced differently in different idiolects.

IMPEDE /im'plid/ — hinder or bar (articulation, a stream of air, etc.).

IMPLOSION /im'plsu3an/ — the first stage of a single plosive Sound articulation.

INALIENABLE (INDISPENSABLE, CONCOMITANT) FEATURES /m-'eiljanabl, ,irtdis'pensebl, kan'komitant 'ffctjW — these features are always present in all the allophones of a phoneme, e.g. two foci in /J, 3, w, 1/ articula­tion, lip rounding in /us/ articulation. They may be distinctively relevant and irrelevant, e.g. seem vs. theme, /s—9/ are opposed due to the flat, round narrow* ing difference, in same vs. fame the shape of the narrowing is irrelevant, /s—f/ are opposed due to the place of articulation difference.

INHALATION /jinha'leijW — breathing the air in.

INITIAL PHASE /t'ntXal 'feiz/ — the first phase of a sound articulation. - INSTRUMENTAL PHONETICS /,mstru'mentl fau'netiks/ — different techniques and devices used In experimental phonetics.

INTERALLOPtfON 1С ALTERNATION /^rintergle'ieunik,oiIt9:'iHH,ren/ — alternation between different allophones of one and the same phoneme, e.g. /n/ alveolar alternates with /n/ dentaf In nine — ninth.

INTERCOMMUNICATION /'intako.mjuaii'keijW — giving or passing information by means of oral speech.

INTERDENTAL ARTICULATION /.mta'dentl o.-,tikj4i'leijW — artic­ulation characterized by the interdental position of the tip of the tongue in articulating/9, 5/. In speech these sounds are often pronounced as dental, with the tip of the tongue placed behind the upper teeth.

INTERIDIOLECTAL PHONETIC VARIATIONS /⁷inta(:),idiau'Iekt9l fau'netik jVsan'etJsnz/ — variations in the pronunciation of one and the same phoneme, word of sentence in the same phonetic context and the same style of speech by different speakers of the language.

INTERMITTENT CLOSURE /_;Tnta'mitent 'к!эиза/ - this type of clo­sure is formed when the tip of the tongue is rapidly tapping against the teeth­ridge as in the articulation of trilled, or rolled /p/.

INTERPHONEMIC ALTERNATION /.mtefau'niimik /»Its:'net Jan/ -> alternation between different phonemes, which are represented by their differ­ent ailophones, e.g. /as/ alternates with /e/ in man — men.

INTONATION /,tnteu'neif9n/ — a component of the phonetic structure which is viewed in the narrow meaning as pitch variations, or speech melody. It manifests itself in the del imitative function within a sentence and at its end; see PROSODIC FEATURES.

INTONATION GROUP /.mteu'neijen 'amp/ — an actualized sensa group.

INTONEME /'rnbtmfcnt/ — a phonological unit created by two or more

components of intonation, or by a combination of various types of tonemes or accenteraes, e.g. What difficulty? What difficulty/ These two sentences are pro­nounced with two different intonemes.

INTRAIDIOLECTAL PHONETIC VARIATIONS /'intra,idiau'Iektel fau'netik /vsan'eijanz/ — variations In the pronunciation of one and the same speaker, i.e. within one and the same idiolect. They are of two types: free va­riations and those conditioned by different styles of pronunciation — stylistic Variations.

INTRUSIVE SOUNDS /m'trissiv 'saundz/ — alien to the word. For example: /'himpjudant/ instead of /'impjudant/; /'pleijirj/ instead of /'plenrj/; (''dra-msr and 'mjuszik/ instead of /'drcuma and 'mjttzik/.

INVENTORY OF PHONEMES /'mventn av 'feuntmz/ — in the English language the inventory of segmental phonemes consists of 25 consonant and 21 vowel phonemes. In the Russian language there are 36 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes.

IRRELEVANT FEATURES /I'reltveni 'tttfez/ — different articulatory and acoustic features of speech sounds, which do not make them allophones of different phonemes, e.g, partial devoicing of terminal voiced consonants, varia­tion in the positional length of vowels.

JAWBREAKER /'dä^brerka/ — a word, which is difficult to pronounce.

JAWS /d3o;z/ — parts of the mouth, which bear teeth and by means of which the mouth can be opened and closed.

JONES' VOWEL TRAPEZIUM /'d39Unzi2 'vaugl tra'pfczjam/ — Jones* system of vowels based on 8 cardinaljpoints of articulation; see CARDINAL VOWELS.

JUNCTION /'d^rjkjen/ — the joining of two sounds or words.

JUNCTURE /'ДзлпЩэ/ — the place, where two sounds .or words are joined together,

JUNCTURE PHONEME /'ctäArjktfa 'bunfcm/ — the syllabic boundary at the junction of words or morphemes that can be characterized by distinctive difference, e.g. a name — an aim. Open or plus juncture is marked by /+/: a + name, an -f- aim

К

KINETIC /kai'netik/ — relating to motion, producing motion. KYMOGRAPH /'kaimagra-f/ — the apparatus used to record speech sounds graphically. Kymograms help to ascertain the quality of various sounds

L

LABIAL /'Ieibial/ — relating to the lips.

LABIAL SOUNDS /'leibial ^?saundz/ — articulated by the Hps. For ex­ample: /p, b/.

LABIALIZATION /,Ieibiatai'zeijW — Up rounding.

LABIALIZED VOWELS /'leibialaizd 'vaugla/ — vowels produced with a more or lessJip rounding. For example: /о, у, №, », ■», u/.

LARYNGEAL /,lserin'азЫ, 1д'пп^э1/ - of or pertaining to the larynx.

observe the vocal cords epiglottis, and the glottis. _ о LARYNX /'Ianrjks/ — an organ of the respiratory tract above the wind­pipe. It consists of an elaborate arrangement of cartilage and muscles and con­tains a pair of vocal cords.

LARYNGOSCOPE /U'ringaskaup/ -- laryngeal mirror, which helps to

LATERAL /'lateral/ — having to do with the sides of the tongne. LATERAL SOUNDS /'lastaral 'saundz/ - sounds in the articulation of which the air passages (or passage) are formed at the lateral sides of the tongue. At the same time the contact is made by the tip of the tongue pressed against

LATERAL SOUNDS
ch the air passages (or j
... the same time the con¹.«».. ,_{e Ul[},_uc
the teethridge as In /I/ articulation. ' "

LAW OF CONDITIONED ALLOPHONIC SIMILARITY /'la av ken'di-Jand ,sels fünik jSimi'lsenti/ — two more or less similar sounds, which are at

the same time more or less different, are allophones of the same phoneme, if their difference is due to non-distinctive factors.

LAW OF GREAT PHONEMIC DISSIMILARITY /'lar. av 'greit fau'nimik jdisimi'lsnti/ — entirely different sounds such as a vowel and a consonant cannot be allophones of the same phoneme.

LAWS OF PHONEMIC AND ALLOPHONIC DISTRIBUTION /'bz sv fau'nfcmik and ,aela'fiomk ,distn'bju:j3ri/ — 1. if different speech sounds occur in the same phonetic context', they are allophones of different phonemes; 2. if similar speech sounds occur in different positions and never occur in the same phonetic context, they are variants of one and the same phoneme.

LAX VOWELS /'lseks 'vauslz/ — vowels in the articulation of which the muscular tension of the tongue, lips, and the walls of the resonating cavities is not so great as in the articulation of tense vowels. Compare: /i, u, ю/ and /t_f u, o:/.

LENGTH OF THE SOUND /'Ierj9 av 8э 'saund/ — length of the sound; waves in the articulation of a sound.

LENIS /'Itais/ (pi. LENES /'li:ni:z/) — pronounced with weak articula­tion: /b, d, z, 9, v, Ö, 3, 03/.

LENITION /li'mjan/ — gradual weakening in the articulation, LESSEN /'lesn/ — to make less. For example, lessen the length, lotidness or tension of sounds.

LETTERS /'letsz/ — printed or written symbols of an alphabet used in representing speech sounds.

LEVEL TONE /'levl 'tsim/ — tone neutral in its communicative function,. which is used mostly in poetry.

LIAISON /lfc'eizurj/ — in the English language cases of liaison are the "intrusive" /r/ or the pronunciation of In/ in an indefinite article when it is fol­lowed by a vowel: an apple /an 'sepl/.

LIGHT /lait/ — in phonetics this term Is equivalent to clear. LINGUAL /'hrjgwal/ — articulated with the help of the tongue. For example, It! is a lingual sound because it is articulated with the tip of the tongue pressed against the teethridge.

LINGUAPHONE /'hngwsfaun/ — having to do with teaching languages-with the help of phonetics.

LINGUAPHONE CLASS /'lirjgwafaun 'klcus/ — class equipped with mag­netic tape recorders, gramophones and earphones used for listening and repro­ducing foreign texts.

LINGUISTIC FUNCTIONS /hrj'gwistik 'Unkjanz/ - in phonetics they are connected with phonemic, significative properties of sound, syllable, stress, and intonation.

LIP POSITIONS /'lip pa'zijanz/ — different positions of Hps, which change the articulation of sounds and their tamber. The main positions of the lips are: rounded, as in Ы articulation, unrounded, as in hi articulation, protruded, as in /y/ articulation, non-protruded as in /e/ articulation, spread as in /i=/ ar­ticulation, neutral as in /э/ articulation.

* LIPS /lips/ — two muscular folds bordering the mouth; in articulatory phonetics referred to as "upper" and "lower lip".

LIQUID CONSONANTS /'Iikwrd 'ktmssnants/ — some phoneticians use .this term to characterize the sounds /3, r/.

LISP /hsp/ — to pronounce /8/ instead of /s/ and /Ö/ instead of /z/. LITERARY PRONUNCIATION /'htaren pr©,r»Ansi'eiJen/: RP PRO­NUNCIATION (RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION) or PUBLIC SCHOOL PRO­NUNCIATION — the pronunciation of educated people in Southern England. LOCAL DIFFERENCES /'Isukel 'difarsnsiz/ — dialectal differences im the pronunciation of the same sounds or words.

LOGICAL STRESS l'lvdßiksl 'stres/ — the singling out of the word, which seems to be most important in the sentence.

LOGOGRAM /Чюдэдгэет/ — an arbitrary symbol (in shorthand, for in­stance) representing a complete word.

LOGOPAEDIC //bgeWptdik/ - having to do with the correction of speech defects.

LOGOPAEDICS /,kig3(u)'pl:diks/ — a branch of phonetics, which studies speech defects and the ways of correcting them.

LONG VOWELS /'1гц 'vaualz/ — in English they are /I:, се, а, з:, ml.

LOOSE NEXUS /'Ins 'neksas/ — loose connection between a long monoph­thong or a diphthong and a consonant which follows it. For example: /t -j-z/ an the word bees,

LOOSE TRANSITION /'lus tr«en'si3an/ — articulation of two neighbour­ing sounds -when the final stage of the first sound is not affected by the initial stage of the second sound, e.g. /'aisbwg/ compare with the Russian [збор] — «lose transition.

LOSS /Ids/ — in phonetics it is absence of some articulatory work. Loss <of plosion, sound, etc., e.g. act — loss of plosion in /k/.

LOUD /laud/ — producing a powerful stimulus on the ear.

LOUDSPEAKER /'laudspfcka/ — a device that converts electrical impulses into sounds loud enough to be heard some distance away,

LOWER TEETH, LIP, JAW /'1эиэ 'ti:9, 'lip. '(&:/ — all these organs are ■more active and important in the process of articulation than the upper jaw, lip, teeth.

LOW LEVEL TONE /'lau 'levl 'taun/ — characterizes unstressed but prominent syllables of parenthetic groups or long tails.

LOW-NARROW VOWELS /'1эи 'паэгэи 'vaualz/ — these vowels are

Л, О:/.

LOW PITCH /'1эи 'pitj¹/ — low tone. It is usually used in the narrow range <of tone-pitch.

LOW VOWELS /'1эи 'vaualz/ — vowels pronounced with the low position •of the bulk of the tongue. For example: /as, ъ, ге, л,о.-/./л, к/ belong to low vow­els of narrow variety, /se, a(i, и), си, u/ belong to low vowels of broad variety. /eb, a(i, u)/ are low front vowels, /л, о:, си, W are low back vowels.

. LUNGS /Unz/ — the source of the air stream that makes it possible to produce sounds. The latter also regulate the force of the air pressure and produce ■vibrations in the intensity of speech sounds.

M

MAGNETIC TAPE RECORDER /mseg'netik 'teip n'tada/ — the appa­ratus that converts sounds into electrical signals and then into variations in ihe magnetization of a wire or tape of magnetic material. A similar system has been devised for operation with a television camera, recording television pic­tures as magnetic information which may be used later to reproduce the images «(videotape).

MEDIA /'mirdjs/ tot. MEDIAE) /'medjls/ see LENIS.

MEDIAL./'mfcdjsl/ — passing through the middle of the air-passage.

MEDIAL SONANTS /Wdjal 'sounants/ — sounds articulated with the air-passage through the middle part of the tongue. For example: /w, r. j/.

MEDIOLINGUAL CONSONANTS /'mi:dJ9(u)hna.wal 'k«nsanants/ — con­
sonants articulated with the help of the middle part of the tongue. To this group
belong English /J/ and Russian /й/, , .

MELODY /'metsdi/ — changes in the voice pitch in the process of speech.

MEMBERS OF A PHONEME /'membaz av a 'feunfera/ - positional and •combinatory allophones belonging to the "family of one and the same sound ■{D, Jones),

MERGING OF STAGES /'ma:d3in av 'steicfeiz/ - coincidence of the last
■stage of the first sound in the articulation of a word with the first stage of the
-second sound. Merging of stages usually takes place when sounds of a different
•nature are joined, for example /I + i + t/ in the word lit. , , ,.

METHOD OF MINIMAL PAIRS /'meOad av 'minimal 'psez/ - the dis­covery of as many pairs of words as possible, that differ in one phoneme. It is based on the substitution of one sound for another, commutation.

ISTINCTIVE OPPOSITIONS ZmeGad jUpa'ziJ'anz/ — this method enables to prove whether the phonetic difference is relevant or not.

METHOD OF DISTINCTIVE OPPOSITIONS Z'meGad av dis'tinktiv

'J'/ thi thd b t h hti diffnce

METHODS OF PHONETIC ANALYSIS /'meÖadz av fau'netik a'nssh-
sis/ — different methods used in the stujJy and investigation of different pho­
netic -phenomena. '

METRONOME /'metranaum/ -/a clockwork device with a moving; audible indicator, which can be regulated to different speeds and used to mark-equal periods. It is used in phonetics to teach rhythm.

MICROPHONE /'maikrsfatm/ — an instrument, which amplifies and transmits sounds.

MID /mid/ — neither high nor low position of the bulk of the tongue when, it moves in the vertical direction. In Jones' classification mid corresponds ta hall-close and half-open. Mid vowels are: /e, з:, э, э(и), е(э}/.

MID BACK VOWELS /'mid 'Ьгек 'vauslz/ — the nucleus of the diphthong, /ou/ and the Russian /of.

MID CENTRAL VOWELS /'mid 'sentral 'yaualz/ — Ы and /a/ in'the-terminology given by British phoneticians. Russian authorities define them as-mid, mixed.

MID FRONT VOWELS /'mid 'frjint 'vau₉lz/ - /e/, the first element o£ the diphthong /еэ/ and the Russian /э/.

MID NARROW VOWELS /'mid 'n«rau 'vauslz/ — /e/, Ы and the first element of the diphthongs /эй/ and le.il.

MID WIDE VOWELS /'mid 'waid 'vaualz/ — /э/ and the first element of the diphthong /е(э)/.

MIDDLE PART OF THE TONGUE /'midl 'pcut av бэ 'tAn/ — the centrar part of the dorsum of the tongue which is opposite the hard palate. It lies be­tween the blade and the back of the tongue. This term is widely used in our ter­minology. The middle of the tongue plays an important role in the process of. palatalization. In the terminology given by some foreign phoneticians the term "middle" is used in reference to the border between the predorsal (that is front> and dorsal (that is middle and back) part of the tongue; according to their ter­minology the middle part of the tongue corresponds to the term "front part of the tongue",

MIDDLE PHASE /'midl 'feiz/ —the second phase of articulation, or the hold-

MINIMAL DISTINCTIONS /'minimal disMinkj-gnz/ - the smallest dif­ferences, that help to recognize and differentiate words.

MINIMAL PAIR /'minimal 'pea/ — a pair the distinctive differences between the members of which are based upon one distinctive difference. The pair pill — bill is minimal, because its members are differentiated due to /p — b/ phonemes, their fortis /p/ — lenis 1Ы distinctions.

MISPRONOUNCE /'mispra'nauns/ — to pronounce sounds or words with-, mistakes.

MISTAKES IN PRONUNCIATION /mis'teiks in prs,nAnsr'eiJan/ — dif­ferent deviations from the teaching norm in the pronunciation of a foreign lan­guage. Academician L. V. Shcherba suggested that mistakes should be divided into 1. phonological (altering the meaning of words) and 2, non-phonological, (that do not affect the meaning of words).

MIXED VOWELS — G. P. Torsuyev defines them in the following way: «тело языка приподнято, причем вся спинка языка лежит максимально-плоско». They are /з;, э/.

MODIFICATIONS IN CONTEXT /jmudifi'keifanz in 'ktsntekst/ — sound' changes in context. Positional and combinatory modifications of phonemes in. connected speech,

_t MONOPHTHONG /'тттвГввп/ — a vowel sound in the articulation oi^: which the articulating organs are more or less stable, which results In the sta­tionary nature of the vowel, English monophthongs are /i, e, аэ, си, ъ, <$, u, л,, з:, а/.

MONOPHTHONGIZE /'mtinafe-ongaiz/ — to acquire equal quality. _ MONOSYLLABISM /'muna'silabizm/ — linguistic phenomenon character­ized by monosyllables. Monosyllabism is characteristic of the English language..

MONOSYLLABLE /'imma'silebl/ — a word consisting of one syllable..

MONOTONE /'munatsun/ — equal tone, lacking the necessary variations in the voice pitch.

MONOTONOUS /ma'ntitsnas/ — pronounced with equal tone.

MORA /'more/ (pi. MORAE I'vmti) — the length of one short syllable
■which was considered the unit of length in the antique versification; so the
length of a long syllable was equal to two rooras. . . . .

MORPHOGRAPH /'mafsgraf/ — separate graphemic unit which is a graphemic reflex of a morpheme.

MORPHOPHONOLOGY /.nrafufs'nulafei/ — this branch of phonology studies the distribution of morphologically correlated sounds in order to es­tablish their phonemic status.

t MOUTH /mau6/ — the cavity in the head containing the teeth, the tongue and the palate with the uvula.

* MOUTH CAVITY /'mau8 'kseviti/— the cavity between the teeth and
the pharynx, ,

MOUTHPIECE /'mauOpiis/ — the part of the kymograph which is applied
to the mouth. • ,

MOVABLE ORGANS OF SPEECH /'nravabl 'tcgenz av 'spfctf/— the or­gans of speech that move during articulation: the lips, the lower jaw, the tongue, the soft palate with the uvula, the back wall of the pharynx.

MURMUR /'ma:ma/ — soft speech, sometimes indistinct.

MURMURED VOWELS /'m₈:mad 'vaualz/ — obscure vowels.

MUTATION /mju:'teijan/ — umlaut.

MUTE LETTERS /'mjwt 'letez/ — letters, or letter combinations which are not pronounced, but remain in words due to traditional spelling rules.

MUTUAL ASSIMILATION /'mjtttfual s^imi'leijen/ — bilateral assimi­lation, when two assimilating sounds equally influence each other. For example, bilateral assimilation of /s/ + /J/ results in /J/: issue /'isju — '1Ш — 'iW.

MUTUALLY DISTINCTIVE SOUNDS /'mJtrtjiiBli dis'tinktiv 'saundz/ -the sounds that belong to different phonemes and are realizations, variants or allophones of different phonemes, e.g. /b, p/ in park — bark, r i

MYOKINETIC ANALYSIS /'maie(u)kai'nefik e'nehsis/—'a complex of. different analyses that are carried out to study muscular — kinetic work of speech organs,

N

NARROW /'naersu/ — the variety of high, mid, and low positions of the bulk of the tongue when it moves in the vertical direction. See HIGH-NARROW, MID-NARROW, LOW-NARROW.

NARROW PASSAGE /'гш-au 'pjesKb/ — the term is conventional and
characterizes the state of the passage for the flow of air in the articulation of
vowels or consonants. For example, the air passage is narrow in 1Ы articulation
and it is also narrow in /s/ articulation. _ .„,

NARROW RANGE /'пазгэи 'reindg/ (see WIDE RANGE, MEDIUM
RANGE) — if the range of the voice pitch is represented by two horizontal
parallel lines 10 mm wide, then the head syllable of the) wide range utterance
will be arbitrarily represented by a dash 2 mm from the top range line. The
head syllable of the narrow range will be repreaenied by a dash 2 mm frcm
the bottom range line. The head syllable of medium range will be represented
by a dash 6 mm from the bottom range line. ,

NARROW TRANSCRIPTION /'шегеи ,tr sens'Imp jW — the system of transcription signs into which additional symbols are included which corres­pond to allophones of seme phonemes.

NARROWING /'nserauin/ — a passage of small width or length. Narrow-ings can be formed by the lips, or the tongue and the palate (its front, mid or back part).

NARROWING THE RANGE /'nasreuin 8в 'renufe/ — characterizes em­phatic speech which is uttered within the limits of narrow range.

NASAL CAVITY /'neizl 'ksaviti/ — immovable cavity inside the nose and the nasopharynx; it is separated from the mouth cavity by the upper jaw with the teethridge and the palate,

NASAL SONANTS /'neizl 'saunents/ — they are articulated with the blocked passage for the flow of air through the mouth cavity. This is effected by lowering the soft palate. Nasal sonants are Im, a, rj/,

NASAL PHARYNX /'neizl 'faenrjks/ (nasopharynx) — the upper part of the pharynx 4 cm long. It is situated above the soft palate.

NASAL PLOSION /'neizl 'рЬизэпА — plosion formed when the soft pal­ate is separated from the back wall of the nasal pharynx and the air quickly escapes through the nasal cavity; it takes place in the combinations like /tn, dn/.

NASAL TWANG /'ne:zl 'twserj/ is characteristic of American pronuncia­tion and results from the laxness of the soft palate which does not cover the nasal cavity completely and the air escapes partly through the narrowing formed.

NASAL VOWELS /'neizl 'vaualz/ — vowels articulated when the flow of air is directed from the lungs both through the mouth and the nasal cavity. Nasal vowels exist in the French language.

NASALIZATION /,neiatai'zeijan/ — nasal twang.

NEIGHBOURING SOUND /'neibanrj 'saund/ — adjacent sound, that ■which follows.

NEUTRAL POSITION /'njistrsl pa'zijgn/ — the position when the tongue is equally removed from front, back, high, and low positions.

NEUTRAL VOWEL /'njutral 'vaual/ — a mixed vowel of mid-open po­sition, broad variety — /э/.

NEUTRALIZATION /(njictralai'zeij'an/ — the loss of qualitative and tembral characteristics of vowel sounds in unstressed positions.

NEXUS /'neksas/ — articulatory dependence between a vowel and conso­nant. See CLOSE NEXUS, LOOSE NEXUS.

NOISE /noiz/ — characterizes consonants, which are formed when the flow of air passes through a narrowing and produces audible friction. Voiceless con­sonants are "pure" noises, and voiced consonants are a combination of noise and voice, produced by the vocal cords, which are drawn together and vibrate.

NON-DISTINCTIVE SPEECH SOUNDS /'nmdis'tirjktiv 'spttf 'saundz/ — similar sounds which occur in different positions and are incapable of being opposed to each other in minimal pairs, e.g. /k/ in cool, school, looked.

NON-FINAL /'non'faml/ — not terminal, followed by a sound, a word, a group of words.

NUCLEAR TONE /'nju&lia Чэип/ — the tone associated with the nucleus of a sense-group is a nuclear tone. In RP they are the following: the high falling, the low falling, the high rising, the low rising, the rising-falling, the falling-rising, the rising-falling-rising, the level tone.

NUCLEUS OF A DIPHTHONG /'njtckhas 9V э 'dif8ürj/ (pl. NUCLEI /'njakliai/) — that part of the diphthong, which is more prominent. For ex­ample, the nuclei of /ai, ei/ are /a, e/.

NUCLEUS OF A SENSE-GROUP /'njuklias av a 'sens'gricp/ — the last stressed syllable of a sense-group.

OBSOLETE /'ubsalfct/ — not used nowadays.

OBSTRUCTION /ab'strAkJan/ ~ in articulation it is either a narrowing (incomplete obstruction) or a complete closure of the speech organs (complete obstruction).

OCCLUSION /э'к1шзэп/ — a complete obstruction made by the speech organs, as in /p, t, k/.

OCCLUSIVE /o'klissiv/ — the sounds pronounced when the air on its way out breaks up a complete obstruction. Occluslve consonants are 1. /p, b, t, d, k, g/ — stop or plosives and 2. sonorants /m, n, n/ — nasals (see PLOSIVE CONSONANTS).

OCCURRENCE /s'kArans/ — frequency with which sounds, phonemes, or words are used,

OFF-GLIDE /'o:f,glaid/ — a short and not definite vowel, which is heard after terminal consonants (according to H. Sweet). Some authors consider that it is a neutral vowel, which is heard between sounds. For example: -ism /iz(9)m/.

ONSET /'unset/ — the first stage of a sound articulation (initial phase, excursion, first stage).

OPEN /'oupsn/ — characterized by the low position of the bulk of the tonöus OPEN SYLLABLE /'aupsn 'silebl/ — the type of syllable which ends I» a vowel — CV-type. , , . , OPEN VOWELS /'эирэп 'vauslz/ — the group of vowels which are pro­nounced with the open, or low position of the bulk of the tongue. Open or low vowels in English are: /аэ, л, -d, a(i, и), ш, vj. OPPOSITION /,-Dp3'zi.fsn/ — comparison of sounds, words or morphemes- along the lines of their qualitative and quantitative characteristics which re­ sults in singling out their minimal distinctive features, that are phonologically relevant or irrelevant. For example, the opposition between /kab — кар/ is- based on voiced — lenis voiceless — fortis distinctions in /b — p/ which is- their minimal distinctive relevant feature (other features, which characterize these sounds are irrelevant). , , . , ,. ORAL METHODS /'о:гэ! 'me0adz/ — different methods of teaching a foreign language, which are carried out for retention of oral speech habits. ORAL SOUNDS /'o=ral 'saundz/ — the sounds which are produced with the raised soft palate, thus the air goes out of the mouth cavity. ORATORICAL STYLE /дгэЧюпкэ1 'stall/ — the type of speech with which orators address large audiences. It is characterized by slow rate, eloquent and moving traits, , ., , , .. ... ORGANS OF SPEECH /'o:ganz av 'spttj/ — the organs that together witft biological functions, such as breathing, feeding, smelling and tasting, serve to-carry out intercommunication through the elaborate work of the four mechanisms:, the power, the vibrator, the resonator and the obstructor. ORTHOEPHY /oi'Geuipi/ — the correct pronunciation of the words of a language. The interpretation of the rules of reading cannot be done without з good command of phonetics. This fact makes grammar and lexicology dependent °n Orthographic syllable /^ee'gneftk 'siiebi/ - a unit into which d diidd i iti it h d t ls

Orthographic syllable /^ee'gneftk 'siiebi/ - a unit into which

words are divided in writing or print, e.g. rang-ing, al-ien. They do not always coincide with phonetic syllables.

ORTHOGRAPHY /»'Bugrefi/ — the system of spelling rules,

OSCILLOGRAM /s'silsgram/ — a record made by an oscillograph or by
an oscilloscope. , , ,. „.,«

OSCILLOGRAPH /o'silsgrasf/ — an instrument which makes it possible
to record speech in the form of graphs. , ,.

OVERLAP /.suve'Isep/ - the term is connected with the phases of articu­
lation which partly coincide in the neighbouring sounds. The result of sucti
overlapping is partial or complete assimilation. ... * i

OVERTONE /'suvstsun/ — one of the tones above the fundamental tone in a harmonic series. They are produced when only parts of the vi огашг mechanism oscillate.

P

PALATALIZATION /,pajletdai'zeijW — softening of consonants, which
results from the secondary place of articulation — front-secondary ipcus. 11
takes place when the middle part of the tongue is raised to the hard palate ana
the air passage is narrowed or constricted, which gives the consonant sou colour­
ing. All consonants, with the exception of medio-lingual, can be affected Dy
palatalization when they are followed by /I-, i, e or]/. Palatalization is phonemic
in the Russian language (compare: пыл — пыль). In the English language P^alal
talization is non-phonemic, and when it takes place in the articulation ot
sounds other than /1, J¹, 3, tf, cfc/ under the influence of the Russian language it
is a mistake. . , ...

PALATAL SOUND /'psektl 'saund/ — the sound that is connected with
the palate articulatorily. .,

PALATE /'pasbt/ - the roof of the mouth, separating the mouth cavity from the nasal cavity. In articulatory phonetics it is divided into the Hard pai-ate, the soft palate with the uvula and the teethridge,

259»

PALATE ARTIFICIAL /'ра;Ы .ati'fij¹«!/ is made of metal or vulcanite for each experiments tor individually and corresponds exactly to the shape of bis palate. The underside of the artificial palate is sprinkled with some tine white powder and then carefully fitted into the mouth, after this a sound is articulated. During this process some-of the powder is licked off ai the points of the tongue — palate contacts. After this the artificial palate is removed and carefully examind.

PALATO-ALVEOLAR CONSONANTS /'pal stsu'al vials 'kionsanants/— the consonants articulated by the tip of the tongue raised against the teethridge (there is a narrowing between them) and the middle part of the tongue which is -simultaneously raised to the hard palate, Palato-alveolar consonants are / J, 3/-

PALATOORAMS ЛраеШэцдгаатг/ — the drawings of the tongue — pal­ate contacts.

PARENTHESIS /pa'ren9asrs/ — a word, .phrase or sentence usually hav­ing its own complete meaning, inserted into a sentence which is grammati­cally complete without this insertion, and marked off from it by punctuation. For example: "I shall not go there," he replied. "I ask you," she demanded, "to go there immediately." In speech it is expressed by lowering the pitch of the voice.

PARENTHETIC /,раггэп'8еШ — constituting a parenthesis, containing a parenthesis.

PARTIAL TONES /'раГэ1 'taunz/ — partial waves which result from the vibrations of the parts of the vibrating body are perceived as partial tones, or overtones, or harmonics.

PARTIAL WAVES /'parjal 'weivz/ — waves produced by the vibrations of the parts of the physical body. Most sound waves are complex: they consist of the fundamental and partial waves. The sound waves produced by the vibra­tion of the whole body are called fundamental.

0 PASSAGE FOR THE AIR STREAM /'p»sid3 f? 81 'ее 'strbm/ — the way through which the ■flow of air goes out of the mouth or nasal cavity.

PASSIVE ORGANS OF SPEECH /'psesiv 'wganz av 'spfctf/ — the organs that are either constantly immovable, such as the hard palate and the upper teeth, or such that are fixed but can be movable, for example, the back part of the tongue in the articulation of /r/ is fixed and in /k, g/ it is active and moving to the soft palate, with which it forms a complete obstruction.

PAUSE /pas/ — a short period of time when sound stops before starting again. Pauses are non-obligatory between sense-groups and obligatory between sentences.

PEAKS OF PROMINENCE /'pfcks av 'prpmmans/ — the points oJ maximal acoustic activity of tone.

PECULIARITY /pi,kj№li'ffinti/ — a feature which characterizes some pho­netic phenomenon.

PENULTIMATE /pi'iultrmit/ - the last but one syllable.

PERCEPTIBILITY /p9,sepU'bihti/ — in phonetics it is usually connect­ed with hearing.

PERIODICITY /,ptana'disitr/ — the quality or fact of recurring at con­stant intervals.

PHARYNGAL(-GEAL) /fa'nnggl, ^азпп'ОзЫ/ — connected with the pharynx.

PHARYNGOSCOPE /f a'rrngasksup/—the apparatus which is used for the observation of the pharyngaf cavity,

PHARYNX /'fzennks/ —.the cavity between the mouth and the oesoph­agus communicating with the nasal passages and ears.

PHASES OF ARTICULATION /'feiziz av as,tikju'leijen/ - three phases in the articulation of a single sound: initial, medial (or central), and final, Theyfmay be called differently: excursion, stop stage and recursion.

PHONATE /f3{u)'neit/ — to pronounce outloud with the vocal cords vibrating and producing voice.

PHONEMATIC /,faunl:'mastik/ —< possessing functional properties.

PHONEME /'fatinlim/ — the shortest functional unit of a language. Each

phoneme exists in speech in the form of mutually non-distinctive speech sounds, its allophones. Each speech sound is an allophone oJ some phoneme.

PHONEMIC COMPONENT /fsu'niimik kam'paunant/ — this component of the phonetic structure manifests itselS in the system of separate phonemes and their allophones.

PHONEMIC TRANSCRIPTION /fau'nfcmik trsens'kripJan/ — this type of transcription is based on the principle "one symbol per phoneme". A phoneme is reflected in this transcription as an abstraction and generalization. The sym­bols of a phonemic transcription are placed within two slanting lines / /.

PHONETIC PRINCIPLE OF ORTHOGRAPHY /feu'netik 'prmsapl av 3!'9Dgrafi/ is a one-to-one correspondence: one grapheme corresponds to one phoneme, or sequence of phonemes. This principle is realized in phonemic tran­scription.

PHONETIC SUBSYSTEM /feu'netik sab'sistim/ — the speech sounds which occur in interjections and borrowed words, e.g. nasalized vowels pro­nounced in some words borrowed from French,

PHONETIC SYSTEM /fau'netik 'sistim/— a systemic combination of iive components of the language, i.e. the system oi segmental phonemes, the phonemic component, the syllabic component, the accentual component, in­tonation.

PHONETICS /fsu'netiks/ — the science that studies the sound matter of the language, its semantic functions and the lines of development.

PHONIC /'faunik/ — acoustic, connected with voice or sounds.

PHONOGRAPH /'faunsgrarf/ — а machine invented by Edison for record­ing and reproducing sounds (1877).

PHONOLOGICAL MISTAKES 7,fauna'Iud3ik{9)l mis'teiks/— mistakes connected with the alteration of the meaning of words, which prevent communi­cation. For example, mispronunciation of /9/ may lead to the confusion of thought — fought, think — sink, mouth — mouse, etc.

PHONOLOGICAL OPPOSITION /»feuns'lodgikal ,ирэ'гфэп/ - a pair of words in which any one phoneme is usually opposed to'any other phoneme in at least one lexical or grammatical minimal or subminimal pair, e.g. /t — d/, /k — g/ in ten — den, coat — goat.

PHONOLOGY /fö'nolad3i/ — the science that deals with phonemes and their sequences. It is functional phonetics since it investigates the functional side of phonemes, accent, syllable, and intonation.

PITCH /pitf/ — the degree of highness or lowness varying with the number of vibrations of a note. V. A. Vassilyev defines it as "perception of the frequency of repeated¹ pressures on the ear-drum".

PLACE OF ARTICULATION /'plets av a,tikju'teijW — the place, wiiHie a complete or incomplete obstruction is formed in the articulation oi consonants,

PLOSION /'р1эизэп/ — an abrupt separation of speech organs at the place of articulation.

PLOSIVE CONSONANTS /'plausiv 'konsanants/ - the consonants that are articulated by forming a complete obstruction which bars the flow oi air sent from the lungs through the mouth or nasal cavity. The organs of speecti that form the obstruction produce a kind of explosion on their abrupt separation. Plosive consonants are /p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, n/. See PURE PLOSIVES.

POINT OF ARTICULATION /'point av cujtrikju'leifan/— this term te used by Ameriean^linguists instead of the term "fixed or passive speech organs .

POSITIONAL ALLOPHONES /pa'zifanl 'telafaunz/ — variants of a pho­neme which are used in definite positions due to the tradition of a language pronunciation, e.g. dark and light /I/.

POST-ALVEOLAR CONSONANTS /'paust ' sei v] als 'konsanantsl' - con­sonants that are articulated by the tip of the tongue which moves behind tne back slope of the teethridge, as, for example /t/ — /d/ in the words tree — ary.

POST-CONSONANTAL SOUND/poust_#kt»nee'nenU 'saund/ - the sound which follows a consonant.

POST-POSITION /'paustpa'zi/an/ — the position of some phonetic ele­ment after a word; when unstressed, this element may be termed enclitic after a stressed word.

POST-TONIC STRESS /'psust'timik 'stres/ — tertiary stress is defined as post-tonic, e.g. /kan'grsetjuleit/.

PRACTICAL PHONETICS /'ргакикэ! fau'netiks/ — teaching to pro­nounce sounds correctly.

PRE-DORSAL CONSONANTS /'prfc'dosl 'ktmssnants/ — this term is connected with the term "dorsum". Pre-dorsal consonants are articulated by the blade and the tip of the tongue, e.g. Is, z/.

PRE-TON 1С STRESS /'prfc'txmik 'stres/ — secondary stress is defind as pre-tonic; /,83tu'meiten/.

PRE-VOCAL /'pri'vauksl/— a consonant that stands before a vowel.

PRIMARY PHONEMES /'praiman 'fauntmz/ — the term is used by those scientists who consider phonemes proper "primary" distinctive «nits and open transition /+/, stresses /' " » "/, pitches /1234/, clause terminals /-* / / are viewed by them as "secondary" distinctive units.

PRIMARY STRESS /'praiman 'stres/ — the stress which is the strongest compared with the other stresses used in a word.

PRINCIPAL ALLOPHONE /(typical) /'pnnsipal 'aslaufeun/ — that variant of a phoneme which is considered to be free from the influence of the-neighbouring sounds.

PROCLITIC /pra(u)'khtik/ — a monosyllabic word or particle with no> accent of its own, which is pronounced with the following pre-tonic or accented syllable as one phonetic unit. For example, articles before nouns, the particle to before verbs in the infinitive, or cases like forgive lis'aiv/, begin /bi'gin/.

PROGRESSIVE ASSIMILATION /pra'gresiv s,sim/leij9n/ — the pro­cess when the iirst of the two neighbouring sounds influences the second and makes it similar to itself. For example, the pronunciation of the suffix -ей о£ regular verbs is based on progressive voicing and devoicing: it is pronounced /t/after voiceless consonants (except /t/, /d/), after vowels and voiced conso­nants (except /d/), /id/ after /t/, /d/: dropped /drupt/, remained /n'memd/, ex­tended /iks'tendio/.

PROMINENCE/'prummans/ — singling out acoustically, which produces, the effect of greater loudness.

PRONOUNCE /pra'nauns/ — to articulate.

PROSODIC FEATURES OF THE SENTENCE /pra'stidiJc 'fiitfsz sv Ö» 'sentans/ — they are: speech melody, the pitch (fundamental frequency), ac­cent, tempo, rhythm and pausation, tamber; they constitute intonation in the broad sense — prosodation or prosodization.

PROTRUDE /pra'imd/ — to move forward. In phonetics this term is-connected with the protrusion of the lips.

PUFF /pAf/ — a short light gust of air blown out of the mouth cavity.

PULSATION /pAl'seiJan/ — regularly recurring beats. In speech they are connected with acoustic prominence.

PURE PLOSIVES /'pjU9 'ptsusivz/ — voiced and voiceless occlusive con­sonants pronounced with distinct and quick separation of the obstruction; they are: /p, b, t, d, k, o/. Lax separation of the articulating organs results-in affricated plosion which characterizes indistinct colloquial speech and dia­lects.

PURELY DISTRIBUTIONAL METHOD /'pjueh _#distri'bjisjenl 'meGsd^ is based on the fact that it is possible to establish the phonemic status of any-sound of a given language without knowing the meaning of words, on the know­ledge of the distribution of the sounds.

Q

QUALITATIVE /'kwnhietiv/ — connected with the tamber of the sound,, that is with its spectral characteristics.

QUANTITATIVE /'kwuntitetiv/ - referring to the length of the sound, i.e., its positional and phonemic length.

QUASI-HOMONYMS /'kwcuzi'tiDtnanimz/ — tnis is L. V. Shcherba's term whan hs speaks of ths mambers of a minima! pair, which are almost homo-.tiyras, near-homonyms.

QUESTION /'kwestjW — the communicative type of a sentence in which ■doubt, supposition or want of some information is expressed in the form of a ■question: interrogative, alternative, general, or special.

R

RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION /n'stvd pra,nAnsi'eijW — the type of pronunciation which is the most widely understood one in England and in ■English-speaking countries. It is the teaching norm in England and in most «countries where English is taught as a foreign language including the Soviet Union.

RECESSIVE STRESS /n'sesiv 'stres/ — stress that falls on the first syl­lable or the root of the word if it is preceded by a prefix that has lost its mean­ing, e.g. 'import, be'fore.

RECESSIVE TENDENCY /n'sesiv 'tendsnsi/ — the tendency which con­sists in gradual shifting of word accent to the first syllable (which is usually the joot of the word).

RECIPROCAL ASSIMILATION /n'sipraksl 8,sitni'leijan/ - bilateral .assimilation, when the neighbouring sounds are equally affected by assimila­tion. For example, in the word twice ill is labialized under the influence of /w/, and /w/ in its turn is de voiced under the influence of It/.

RECITE /ri'sait/ — to repeat outloud something memorized, especially before an audience. In studying a foreign language recitation plays a very im­portant role.

RECORD PLAYER /'reload ,pleig/ — an instrument for playing gramo­phone records by means of a pick-up and one or more amplifiers.

REDUCE /n'djuis/ — to make smaller or less. For example, to reduce the intensity of a sound, to reduce the quantity of a sound.

REDUCED FORM /n'djicst 'fo:m/ — a word, which sounds weaker in the ■process of speech. Thus the verb to do can be reduced and pronounced as /du, сэ/ or even /d/. The same can be said about the verb to have /hav, av, v/. Arti­cles, conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns are mostly affected by reduction.

REGRESSIVE ASSIMILATION /n'gresiv a,simi'leijon/ - the process -when the second of the neighbouring sounds influences the first one and makes it similar to itself. For example, in the combination In the /n/ is regressive I y assimilated by /6/ and becomes dental and is pronounced with the tip of the "tongue against the upper teeth (its free variant is pronounced with the tip of the tongue against the teethridge).

RESONANT /'reznant/ — the term is used by H. Gleason for vowels and sonorous consonants,

RETENTION /n'ten/эп/ — the ability to preserve the most stable pro­perties in spite of assimilation or reduction.

RETENTIVE TENDENCY /n'tentiv 'tendonsi/ — this tendency is char­
acterized by the retention of accent in the derivative on the same syllable on
■which it falls in the parent word, e.g. 'simitar, as'similate. ,

RETRACTED POSITION /n'treektid pa'ztW — the position of the
bulk of the tongue when it is in the front or in the back part of the mouth cavity
but a bit retracted in the horizontal direction, forward — back-advanced, or
backward — front-retracted: /u, i/. , ,

RETROFLEXED VOWELS /'retra(u)flekst 'vauaiz/ — the vowels that are articulated by the tip of the tongue curled back behind the back slope of the teethridge irrespective of the articulation of the vowel itself: this results in a special tembral colouring of the retroflexed vowel, e.g. American ftl.

RHYME /raim/ — the repetition of identical or similar terminal sounds, sound combinations or words.

RHYTHM /nöra/ — "rhythm is a flow, movement, procedure, etc., char-acterized by basically regular recurrence of elements or features, as beat, or accent, in alternation with op posite or different elements or features" (Webster s New World Dictionary). Rhythm in speech is the periodic recurrence of stressed

syllables. Rhythm exists both in prose and in erse. It can be regarded as one of the forms in which a language exists.

RHYTHMIC STRESS /'nömik 'stres/ — the term refers to the cases when there are equal number of unstressed syllables between two beats. For example, 'telt them to 'go there at 'once.

RHYTHMIC TENDENCY /'riÖmik 'tendensi/ — the tendency to alter­nate stressed and unstressed syllables. This tendency gave rise to the origin of the secondary stress, especially in four-syllable words of foreign origin. For example, explanation /.ekspla'neijW, conversation /,I«mva'sei,fsn/.

ROLLED CONSONANTS /'rauld 'kimsansnts/ — such consonants are pronounced when the tip of the tongue (or the uvula) vibrates in the How of air and interrupts it repeatedly, so that the flow of air is momentarily obstructed by the vibrating organ (or organs). The Russian sonant /p/ is a rolled consonant,

ROMAN ALPHABET freumen 'aelfebit/— Latin alphabet.

ROMIC /'rgumik/ — the term is used in connection with the use of Latin letters, for symbols of phonetic transcription.

R ONT G E NO GRAM /rant' gen sgraem/ — a photograph made with the help of X-rays. Rontgenograms help to observe directly the ^ork of speech organs in the process of speech.

» ROOF OF THE MOUTH /'ru-f ev 6э 'mau0/^ for purposes of consonant analysis and description it is conventionally divided into: 1. the gums; 2. the teethridge; 3. the back slope of the alveolar ridge; 4. the soft palate (velum) 5. the uvula,

• RULES OF READING /'mlz ev 'rfcdirj/ — the system of rules dealing with the correspondencies between the reading matter of the language and its pro» nunciation.

SAGITTAL /'saufcitl/ — the sagittal division of the articulatory apparatus into right and left halves makes it possible to represent the position of speech-organs in the production of sounds.

SANDHI /'saaidhli/ — the term is connected with different modifications of the sound, caused by assimilation.

SCALE /skeil/ — the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables о a syntactic whole.

SCALE OF SONORITY /'skeil av ss'nvntif — the arrangement of pho­nemes according to their degree of loudness. According to this scale the most so­norous are front low vowels, then go sonants and voiced consonants. Voiceless-consonants are characterized byl minimal sonority, y-

SCHWA VOWEL /'Jwcu 'vauel/ — the neutral vowel Ы.

SECONDARY ACCENT /'seksndgri 'aekssnt/ — this type of accent ap­pears in words of five or more syllables. It falls on the'second pretonic syllable, e.g. ,hospi'tality,

SEGMENT /'segment/ — in phonetics it is the shortest part of speech continuum — a sound or a phoneme.

SEGMENTAL PHONEME /seg'mentl 'fsimian/ — the shortest part of speech continuum that is capablejof differentiating words.

SEMANTIC FUNCTION /si'msentik 'fAnkJen/ — in phonetics the term is used in connection with the differentjatory function (semantic role) of pho­netic means,

SEMANTIC TENDENCY /si'msentik 'tencEensi/— according to this type of tendency words with separable prefixes and compound words have two equal­ly strong stresses, e.g. 'tin'known, 'sit 'down, ' twenty-one^ 'eye-witness.

SEMI-VOWELS /'semi'vauslz/ — the term is almost out of use nowadaysv It refers to /j, w, r/,

SEMI-WEAK VOWELS /'semi'wtk 'vauelz/ - the vowels weaker in tam­ber which is the result of qualitative reduction: intermediate between full and¹ neutral phonation of the vowel.

SENSE-GROUP /'sensgrup/ — a word or a group of words that conveys some idea.

SENTENCE ACCENT /'sentsns 'sfcsant/ — a constituent part of the pho­
netic structure of the spoken sentence and one of the components of intonation
In the broad sense of the term (see PROSODATION). „,•„„«

SENTENCE STRESS /'sentans 'stres/ — the greater degree of prominence given to certaitfwords in a sentence. These words are usually nouns, adjeciyes, notional verbs and>dverf», interjections, numerals, demonstrative, possessive, emphasizing pronouns, interrogative words and two-syllable prepositions Ar­ticles, partfcles to and there, auxiliary, modal, and connective verbs, personal reflexive and reciprocal pronouns, one-syllable: prepositions, conjunctionsand conjunctive words - are, as a rule, unstressed. The distribution of sentence stress is determined by the semantic factor.

SHADE /Jeid/ — a slight variation. ,

SHAPE /Jeip/ — form, the shape of the mouth cavity, the shape, formed by the lips.

SHARP /j"cup/— strong and shrill. i,,._moii_Br

SHORT VOWELS /'Jat 'vaualz/ - the vowels having a relatively smaller length, or quantity in comparison with the long vowels {other conditions re­maining the same). Short English III and /u/ differ from the long HI and /u/

^alS° SIBILANTS /'sibilants/- the sounds of a whistling or hissing nature.
In English sibilants are Is, z, J", 3/. , ,, , ,. _bllf „1 _nm

SILENT LETTERS /'sadaot 'let«/ - letters that are spelt but not pro-

n0UtSILENT STOP/'sailant 'stop/ - the medial stage in /p, t, Id«JJ that is characterized by the "loss of plosion" in cases like: past perfect, board, eight days. SIMILARITY /'swii'lfflnti/— likeness. . SINGLE STRESS /'sing! 'stres/ - only one stress in awora. SINGLE TAP It/ /'sirjgl 'tap 'r/ - pronounced with the single beat of the tip of the tongue against the teethridge. -„^„Hnna! mis- SLIP OF THE TONGUE /'slip sv бэ 'W — a small unintentional mis take. SLIT /sht/ — a flat narrowing. . .. n i_ • SLOPE /sleup/ - an incline. The back slope of the teethridge - an in cline at the back part of the teethridge. , „ chnWha1« SLOW STYLE/'slau 'stall/- corresponds to Acad. L. V. Shcherba s cSnSONANTS /'swft 'kunsanants/ — palatalized /' / th bk ft t f t

cSnNNTS /swft kunsanants/ palatal ^

*SOFT PALATE /'st)ft 'palit/ - the back, soft part of the hardIt'alate-.

SONOR ANTS /se'narwrts/ - the sounds in the production of which voice prevails over noise. Sonorants in English are /m» n, rj, I» J> ^w> ^r/*

SONORITY /sa'nonti/ — a degree of loudness. _{д d}

SOUND /saund/ - a material unit, produced by speech organs. A souna
can be viewed from the articulatory, acoustic, auditory^.and functional pomw
■of view, . , ._{h a}i

SOUND SPECTROGRAPH /'saund 'spektr₉grcuf/_T an apparatus tnai is used in phonetics for purposes of spectrographic analysis pf ^sP^ee^_e^"_tra a spectrogram it is possible to see different configuration of the *°vreu specif. Different vowels have different arrangement of formants on the ^sP^ec"°f^' .*

SOUTHERN ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION /'элоэп 'inglij ргэ,плпы ^feij3n/ see RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION, or RP.

SPECIAL QUESTION /'spejsl 'kwestjsn/ — the type of a 4t«sHoii begins with the interrogative words who, what, where, why, etc., »Д information required. Special questions may refer to any part of the They are pronounced with the falling tone.

SPEECH MELODY /'spMJ 'irieledi/ - variations in the pitch of the voice in connected speech.

SPIRANT /'spaierent/ see FRICATIVE. ■

SPREAD LIP POSITION /'spred 'lip рэ'яJen/ - the pos^.[on when tne corners of the lips are widened in the horizontal direction, the teeth are siignuy

visible, and the lips come close to the gums. This position of the lips can be ob­served in the articulation of Ы.

STABILITY OF ARTICULATION /sta'biliti ev o=,tikju'leijW is the-state when the shape, volume and orifice-size of the mouth resonator are stable. According to the stability of articulation English vowels are divided into: monophthongs, diphthongs and diphthongoids.

STATISTICAL METHOD /sta'tistikal 'meOsd/ — the method which-, helps to establish frequency, probability and predictability oi occurrence of phonemes and their allophones in different positions.

STAVES /steivz/ — two parallel lines for intonation recording {by means-of special symbols).

STRESS or ACCENT is a greater degree of prominence which is effected! mainly by pronouncing the stressed syllable (a) on a different pitch or with & change of pitch direction in it; (b) with greater force of exhalation and greater muscular tension. The greater force of articulation is accompanied by an increase-in the length of the sound in the stressed syllable, especially vowels. Vowels in the stressed syllables are not reduced.

STRONG FORMS /'stn>n 'famz/ — the forms that can be observed in ac­cented words.

STRONG VOWELS IN WEAK POSITIONS /'strun 'vaualz in 'Wr.k pa-'zijenz/ — vowels the quantity of which is not reduced in unstressed positions. For example, Ы in blackboard /'blsekbwd/, /se/ in climax /'klaimaks/.

STRUCTURALISTS /'strAktfaralrsts/ — those scientists who analyse phonetic phenomena without recourse to meaning, which they consider to be external to linguistics (R. Jacobson, L. Bloomfield, L. Hjelmsley, E. Nida). Structuralists consider the sound structure as a system of relations between! phonemes. They carry out the investigation of the phonetic structure without recourse to history and' to the material aspect of phonemes, which are realizedl as distinctive units in words, phrases and sentences. All this makes their de­tailed analysis of phonemes abstract and schematic.

STYLES OF PRONUNCIATION ■ /'stailz av pr_9/nAnsi'eiJan/ — L. V. Shcherba suggested two types of style in pronunciation: full style and col­loquial style. According to D. Jones, there are the following varieties of style: rapid familiar style, slower colloquial style, slow conversational style, natural style, acquired style, formal style.

SUB-PHONEMIC VARIANTS /'sAbfs(uyntmik 'variants/ see SUBSI­DIARY MEMBERS.

SUBSIDIARY MEMBERS (allophones) /ssb'sidjsn 'membsz/ — variants-of phonemes that appear under the influence of the neighbouring phonemes with which they are in complementary distribution. They are subdivided into I. combinatory and 2. positional.

SUBSTITUTION METHOD /,SAbsli'tju;.fan 'me6sd/ — the method of replacing of one speech sound by another in the same position to see whether it results in a minimal pair, e.g. pen, ten, den.

SYLLABEME /'silabtm/ — a unit which is responsible for a few minimal and sub-minimal pairs, e.g. lightening — lightning differ only due to /n/ syl-labicity in the first word.

SYLLABIC /si'laebik/ — capable of forming a syllable.

SYLLABIC SOUNDS /si'isebib 'saundz/ — sounds that can form the peaks of prominence, they are vowels and sonants other than /i, w/.

SYLLABICATE /si'laebikeit/ — to divide into, syllables.

SYLLABLE /'silabl/ — shortest segment of speech continuum. Syllables are material carriers of words. They constitute words and their forms, phrases and sentences. According to J. Kenyon the syllable is one or more speech sounds, forming a single uninterrupted unit of utterance, which may be a word, or a commonly recognized and separable subdivision of a word.

SYLLABLE DIVISION /'silgbl di'vi3an/ - division of the word into

arcs of articulatory effort" (N. I. Zhinkin's theory). A strong-end consonant

begins the arc of loudness and a weak-end consonant terminates it. Compare

day, aid; in the first word /d/ constitutes the beginning of the arc of loudness,

or the beginning of a syllable, it is progressively voiced. In the second word /d/

constitutes the end of the arc of loudness, or the end of the syllable, it is progres- S'Ve SYLLABLE PATTERN /'silgbl 'psetsn/— the type of syllable most common for the language. English and Russian are characterized by CV syllabic pattern, T TABLE OF CONSONANTS, TABLE OF VOWELS /'teibl av 'ktjnsanants, 'teibl av 'vau9lz/ ~ an orderly arrangement of consonants or vowels in verti­cal and horizontal columns. It helps to visualize the system of vowels and con­sonants and to compare them with the similar systems of the mother tongue. TABULATE /'tffibjuleit/ - to arrange in tabular form TACTILE /'tektail/ - of, relating to, or perceived by the sense of touch. TAIL /teil/ — unstressed or partly stressed syllables (or syllable) that follow the nucleus of the intonation group. . TAMBER /'tsernba/ — the quality of a musical sound, depending on what overtones are present and their respective amplitudes. TEETHRIDGE /'thönto/ see ALVEOLES

ce.

TEMPORAL COMPONENT OF INTONATION /temperэ1 paunant av .inteti'neijW — it consists of pauses, duration, rhythm.

TENSE VOWELS /'tens 'vaualz/- these vowels are articulated wt
muscles of the lips, tongue, cheeks and the back wall of the pharynx made hard­
er by tensing, Traditionally they are long vowels: /b, cu, v, w, <s:l, ail snori
vowels are considered to be lax. , , ,. 5„„_4.:_nn

TERMINAL TONE /'tammel 'taun/ - a change of pitch at the junction of two sense-groups. The American descriptivists use the term: clause terminal .

TIMBRE /'timba/ see TAMBER, TAMBRE .

TONE /teun/ - sounds may be periodical and non-periodical. « ™ v
brationsof a'physical body are rhythmical, the auditory impression of periodic
waves is a musical tone, or in speech — a speech-tone. .

TONEME /'teuntan/ - the toneme of a sentence or of a мпае-grottp в а
separate phonological unit, because it performs distinctive function, e.g.
once — "never", 'not /once — "many times . ₄tunsst-

TONETIC STRESS MARKS /teu'netik 'stres ,^^W - fhe marks suggest ed by R. Kingdon. They are placed before the stressed ^'e^JS in the same positions as the ordinary stress marks used in pbonetic *nnserg tions. They indicate the intonation as well as the stress. The advantage ош system is that it indicates high and low falling and rising ^tonöj£ Ä nw el and emphatic tones) in the text proper which enables the pupil to do without

^StaVTONETie TRANSCRIPTION /teu'netik trens'knpjenj'- tone and

stress indicators shown by placing special signs on an inlmed sea«,«^ j

between or beside the line of the text, These symbols are different, dashes ana

dots, small and big dots, wedge-like signs, etc. „н-иЫапг orfian.

«TONGUE Лад/ - the most important and movable ^аг.¹'^с"^1аХ4 dlffV

TONGUE TWISTERS /'Urj 'twists/ - short rhymes 1 /» |"

cult sounds and sound combinations are included. They are used as trainm_B

exercises in teaching pronunciation. .

TONOGRAM /'taun3,grssm/- graphic representation of

„TRACHEA /trg'kfca/ see WINDPIPE.

■or linguistically broad, transcription is based on the P™CIPehl?t™Kantlng phoneme". The symbols of phonemic transcription are placed between slanting infiS ii tition is b"^on^ prin-

An iilophonic, or linguistically narrow transcription is ciple "one symbol per allophone". The symbols of an alloph are usually placed between square brackets [ ]. In ift»etta?% transcription is more convenient. An altophonic transcripti to scientific phonetic work.

/t'kj/ th system of sig

TRANSLITERATION ^traenzlita'reijan/ — the representation of the
sounds oJ one language as nearly as possible by the letters and letter combina­
tions of another language. For-ex ample, the Russian ж is represented in English
by the letter combination zh. . ,

TRIPHTHONG /'tnföürj/ — a vowel sound that consists of three elements, the first element is a diphthong and the second — a neutral vowel /a/. In slow, style they are pronounced as a two-syllable unit: /aus/ — /au/ + /э/.

TUNE ONE /'tjim 'wjui/ — a falling tone.

TUNE TWO /'tjrai 'Ы — a rising tone.

TWANG /twasrj/ — a sharp nasal quality of a vowel sound.

TYPICAL TONEMES /'tipikal 'tsunfcmz/ — they are hypothetical^ the following: terminal tönernes, pre-head tönernes, head tönernes, scale tönernes, pitch-level and pitch-range tonemes, rate-of-pitch-change tonemes.

UNACCENTED /'Anak'sentid/ — unstressed.

UNDERTONE /'jtndateun/ — a low tone of voice.

UNICENTRAL CONSONANTS /'jttni'sentrsl 'ktinsanants/ — conso­nants pronounced with a single articulatory obstruction (complete or incom­plete); e.g. /t, d, k, g, p, b, s, z, f, v, rj, h/.

UNILATERAL /'j mil'lateral/ —.the lateral sonant 71/ pronounced with only one side of the tongue lowered (usually it is the left side of the tongue).

UNROUNDED VOWELS /'jm'raundid 'vaualz/— vowels in the articu­lation of which the lips are not rounded la, e, i, aV.

UTTERANCE /'Atarsns/ — v.ocal expression of some idea. ' UVULA /'jttvjuJa/ — a fleshy conical body suspended from the soft palate over the back of the tongue.

VARIANTS CONDITIONED BY DURATION /'vsanants ken'dijend bai djue'reijan/ — quantitative variants of phonemes (positional and combmatory allophones different in length).

VARIANTS CONDITIONED BY STRESS /'vesnants ksn'diyänd bai 'stres/ — variants of phonemes which depend on positional (accentual) condi­tions, e.g../'peer ant/ — /pe'rentl/.

VARIANTS FREE ryeansnts 'frfc/ — two different allophones of a pho­neme pronounced in identical positions by one and the same or different speak­ers,

VARIATIONS STYLISTIC /.veari'eijenz .stai'hstih/— variations in the pronunciation of speech sounds, words and sentences oculiar to different styles of speech.

VARIETY /va'raiati/ — the term is used in connection with the vowels of low and broad variety.

VELAR /'vMa/ — the term is used in the classification о Consonants which are articulated with the help of the soft palate: velar nasal sonofant /rj/, velar stops /k, g/.

VELARIZATION /,vtlorai'zeifon/ - formation of the back-secondary focus which makes the sounds "dark" in tamber /w, r, Xl and the Russian /ж, ш/.

VELUM /'vfclem/ — the soft palate. When the soft palate is raised the air passes out of the mouth cavity, when the soft palate is lowered the flow of air is directed through the nasal cavity.

_u VIBRATION OF THE VOCAL CORDS /vai'breijen av бэ 'vsukl 'ko:dz/ —
... when the glottis is narrowed so that the tensed vocal cords approach escb
other or touch lightly, these'may be set in vibratory motion by the outgoing
breath pressure and brought together again by their own elasticity and by mus­
cular tension" (V. A. Vassilyev). —
. VISUAL AIDS /'vizju9l 'eidz/ — devices which serve to assist understand­
ing or memory by displaying what is to be understood or memorized in a vi­
sible form: charts, diagrams, tables, pictures, films.

VOCAL BANDS /'vault! 'baendz/ — elastic folds of membrane inside the larynx which vibrate to produce voice, see VOCAL CORDS.

VOCALISM /'vsukshzm/ — the system of vowel phonemes.

VOCOID /'vokoid/ — the term is used by the American linguist K. Pike to express the articulatory closeness of sonorants to vowels. Unlike contoid, a vocoid may form a syllable.

VOICE /vois/ — vocal tone produced by the regular vibrations of the vocal cords.

VOICED CONSONANTS /'voist 'tomsansnts/ — the consonants which are produced with the vocal cords brought together and vibrating.

VOICELESS CONSONANTS /'vdisIis 'kunsanants/ — the consonants which are produced with the vocal cords taken apart and not vibrating.

VOLUME /'vrcljum/ — force or Joudness of sounding speech.

VOWEL DIAGRAMS /'vaual 'daiagrsemz/ — schematic representations-of the system of vowels which are based on physiological principle (genetic prin­ciple) and which represent qualitative differences in the articulation of vowels.

VOWEL MUTATION /'vauel mju'tei/эп/ — umlaut, or modification of a vowel caused by assimilation to a vowel or semivowel (now generally lost)] in the following syllable, a vowel resulting from such assimilation has a mark • * placed over it.

W

WEAK VOWELS /'wfck 'vaualz/ — the vowels which are shorter and less-distinct, sometimes they are reduced to the neutral vowel /si. Weakening or reduction of vowels is a characteristic feature of Russian and English. There are-languages where vowel reduction does not take place (Japanese, Italian, Polish).

WIDENING THE RANGE /'waidmrj Öa 'remcfe/ — one of the emphatic-means which consists in deliberate, widening the pitch-levels of sense-groups. » WINDPIPE /'windpaip/ — trachea or air passage.

WORD /ws:d/ — in phonetics the term refers to the word as a phonetic unit.

WORD-STRESS or WORD ACCENT - every disyllabic and polysyllabic word pronounced in isolation has word-stress. It is a singling out of one or more of its syllables by giving them a greater degree of prominence as compared with-the other syllable or syllables in the same word,

WORD TONEME /'vraid 'tsunfcm/ — a distinctive movement or change oS pitch within the syllable. It exists in the so-called tone languages.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Маркс /f., Энгельс Ф. Немецкая идеология // Собр. соч.— Т. 4.

Энгельс Ф. Диалектика природы.— М., 1975.

Ленин В. И. Философские тетради.— М., I960.

Аванесов Р. И. Русское литературное произношение.— М., 1972.

Анпшпова А. М., Шахбагова Д. А. Методическое пособие по курсу тео­ретической фонетики английского языка.— М., 1968.

Антипова А. М. Система английской речевой интонации.—М,, 1979.

Ахманова О. С. Фонология.— М., 1954.

Балинская В. И. Графика современного английского языка.— М., 1964.

Березин Ф. М. История лингвистических учений.— М., 1984,

Богданова И. М. Текст лекций по теоретической фонетике английского ■языка для студентов-заочников МГПИИЯ им. Мориса Тореза.— М., 1981.

Бондаренко Л. В. Фонетическое описание языка и фонетическое опи­сание речи.— Л., 1981.

Борисова Л. В., Метлюк А. А. Теоретическая фонетика английского ■языка,— Минск, 1980.

Буланин Л. Л. Фонетика современного русского языка.— М., 1980.

Дубовский Ю. А., Карневская Е. Б. Нормативные основы английской речевой интонации.— Минск, 1979.

Зиндер Л. Р. Общая фонетика.—М., 1979.

Клычков Г. С. К архитектонике фонологической системы // Вопр. язы-жознания, 1983.—№ 6,—С. 73—81.

Кочергина В. А. Введение в языковедение,—М., 1979.

Панов М, В. Русская фонетика,— М., 1967.

Плоткин В. Я- Эволюция фонологических систем.— М., 1982.— С. 39—50.

Соколова М. А., Гинтовт К. Я., Кантер Л. А. и др. Практическая •фонетика английского языка.— М., 1984.

Степанов Ю. С. Основы общего языкознания.— М., 1975.

Торсу ев Г. П. Строение слога и аллофоны в английском языке,— М., 1975.

Торсуева И. Г- Интонация и смысл высказывания,— М,, 1979.

Торсуева И, Г., Брызгунова Е. А. и др. Интонация.— Киев, 1978.

Tpaxmepog А. Л. Практический курс фонетики английского языка.— Д., 1976.

Трубецкой И. С. Основы фонологии.—М., 1960.

Швейцер А. Д. Литературный английский язык в США и Англии.— М., 4971.

Щерба Л. В. Фонетика французского языка.—М., 1957.

Якобсон, Р., Халле М., Фант Г. 1. Фонология и ее отношение к фоне­тике, 2. Введение в анализ речи // Новое в лингвистике.— М., 1962.— Вып. 2.

Arakin V. D. The Practical Course of English (Second Year).—M., 1973.

Bronstetn A. J. The Pronunciation of American English.— Prentice Hall, 1960.

Chitoran, Dumiiru. Workbook in English Phonetics and Phonology.— Bucuresti, 1977.

Collins, Bavertey, Mees, Inger. The Sounds of English and Dutch.— Lei­den, 1981.

Crystal D. Prosodic Systems and Intonation,—Cambridge, 1969.

Davidov M. V., Egorov G. G, English Phonology. — M., 1971.

Fry D. B. Acoustic Phonetics.— Cambridge, 1976.

GimsonA. С An Introduction to Pronunciation of English.— London. 1964.

•Gleason^H. A. An Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics.—N. Y., 1961.

■Jones D. An Outline of English Phonetics.— 9th ed.— Cambridge, I960.

Jones D. The Pronunciation of English.- Cambridge, 1967.

Kenyan J, S. American Pronunciation.—Ann Arbor, [951.

Kingdon /?. English Pronunciation Practice.— Longmans, 1960.

Klngdon R. The Groundwork of English Intonation,— Longmans, 1958.

Lieberman Ph. Intonation. Perception and Language.— Massachusetts, 1967.

O'Connor J. D., Arnold G. F. Intonation of Colloquial English.—2nd ed.— London, 1973.

Shakhbagova D. A. Varieties of English Pronunciation.—M.₍ 1982.

Sweet H. The Sounds of English____ Oxford, 1929.

Vassilyev V. A. eta!. English Phonetics.—M., 1980.

Vassllyev V. A. English Phonetics / A Theoretical Course.— M., 1970.

Ward I. The Phonetics of English.— Cambridge, 1948.

Учебное издание

Светлана Федоровна Леонтьева

ТЕОРЕТИЧЕСКАЯ ФОНЕТИКА АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА

(НА АНГЛИЙСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ)

Заведующая редакцией И. Э. Волкова

Редактор М. А. Романова

Младший редактор 3. Ф. Юрескул

Художественный редактор В. И. Пономаренко

Художник Г. В. Куликов Технический редактор Э. М. Чижевский Старший корректор Н. А. Каджардузова

ИБ № 6510

Изд. Иг А-3. Сдано в набор 26.03.87. Подп. в печать 14.09.87. Формат 60x90/16. Бум. офс. Ws i. Гарнитура литературная. Печать высокая. Объем 17. усл. печ. д. 17, усл. кр.-отт. 17,61 уч.-изд. л.

Тираж 11500 экз. Зак. К* 667. Цена 90 коп. »Издательство !еВысшая школа», 101430, Москва, ГСП-4, Неглинная ул.,

Д. 29/14.

■Набрано в ордена Октябрьской Революции и ордена Трудового Красного Знамени М.ПО «Первая Образцовая типография» имени А. А. Жданова ■Союэполиграфпрома при Государственном комитете СССР по делай издательств, полиграфии и книжной торговли. 113054, Москва, Вало­вая, 28. Отпечатано в Московской типографии Jft 8 Союаполиграфпрома при Государственном комитете СССР по делам издательств, полиграфии и книжкой торговли. 101898, Москва, Центр, Хохловский пер., 7. Зак. 182,